Critical Thinking

Rhetoric​ ​and​ ​Definitions

Rhetoric:​ ​The​ ​use​ ​of​ ​language​ ​for​ ​the​ ​purpose​ ​of​ ​convincing​ ​an​ ​audience​ ​to​ ​believe​ ​or​ ​do something.​ ​Rhetoric​ ​is​ ​psychologically​ ​motivating,​ ​but​ ​does​ ​not​ ​use​ ​rational​ ​argumentation​ ​and has​ ​no​ ​real​ ​commitment​ ​to​ ​truth,​ ​reason,​ ​or​ ​justification.​ ​Reject​ ​rhetoric​ ​on​ ​site.​ ​Assertions grounded​ ​in​ ​rhetoric​ ​are​ ​disqualified​ ​for​ ​that​ ​reason.​ ​The​ ​following​ ​are​ ​common​ ​rhetorical devices​ ​and​ ​brief​ ​examples:

1. Innuendo:​ ​​Suggesting​ ​something​ ​subtextually​ ​and​ ​implicitly​ ​without​ ​actually​ ​and explicitly​ ​stating​ ​it;​ ​may​ ​take​ ​the​ ​form​ ​of​ ​a​ ​rhetorical​ ​question.

a. Public:​ ​​I​ ​didn’t​ ​say​ ​my​ ​opponent​ ​was​ ​a​ ​draft​ ​dodger​ ​or​ ​unpatriotic;​ ​I​ ​merely​ ​said that​ ​they​ ​got​ ​an​ ​exemption​ ​to​ ​study​ ​philosophy​ ​at​ ​a​ ​university​ ​during​ ​the​ ​war.

b. Interpersonal:​​ ​I​ ​got​ ​groceries,​ ​took​ ​out​ ​the​ ​trash,​ ​made​ ​dinner,​ ​picked​ ​up​ ​the​ ​yard, and​ ​cleaned​ ​the​ ​living​ ​room.​ ​Can​ ​you​ ​do​ ​the​ ​dishes?

2. Euphemism/Dysphemism:​ ​​Using​ ​positive/negative​ ​connotations​ ​of​ ​words​ ​to​ ​force​ ​the audience’s​ ​understanding​ ​in​ ​one​ ​direction.

a. Euphemisms:​ ​downsize,​ ​between​ ​jobs,​ ​military​ ​consultant,​ ​kinetic​ ​strike, collateral​ ​damage,​ ​economic​ ​development,​ ​innocent,​ ​passed​ ​away,​ ​private​ ​parts

b. Dysphemisms:​ ​death​ ​tax,​ ​vulture​ ​fund,​ ​tree​ ​hugger,​ ​feminazi,​ ​trust​ ​fund​ ​baby, talking​ ​head,​ ​jarhead,​ ​meathead,​ ​slut,​ ​nerd,​ ​blonde,​ ​bossy,​ ​thug,​ ​sheeple

3. Ridicule/Sarcasm:​ ​​Removing​ ​legitimacy,​ ​seriousness,​ ​or​ ​power​ ​through​ ​consistent undermining​ ​with​ ​humor​ ​or​ ​irony.

4. Hyperbole​:​ ​Using​ ​overstated​ ​and​ ​embellished​ ​language​ ​to​ ​frame​ ​an​ ​issue​ ​for​ ​the​ ​purpose of​ ​compelling​ ​certain​ ​beliefs​ ​or​ ​actions​ ​regarding​ ​that​ ​issue.

a. The​ ​Iran​ ​nuclear​ ​deal​ ​is​ ​the​ ​worst​ ​deal​ ​ever. b. They​ ​hate​ ​us​ ​and​ ​they​ ​hate​ ​our​ ​freedom.

5. Rhetorical​ ​Definition:​ ​Defining​ ​a​ ​word​ ​so​ ​that​ ​it​ ​suits​ ​the​ ​speaker’s​ ​purposes,​ ​which​ ​is stacking​ ​the​ ​deck.

a. The​ ​low-class​ ​is​ ​a​ ​socio-economic​ ​category​ ​comprised​ ​of​ ​people​ ​who​ ​don’t​ ​work enough​ ​to​ ​support​ ​themselves​ ​adequately.

b. A​ ​terrorist​ ​is​ ​a​ ​religious​ ​extremist. 6. Lying​ ​and​ ​Deception:​ ​Intentionally​ ​misinforming,​ ​disinforming,​ ​obscuring,​ ​or​ ​deflecting

the​ ​audience’s​ ​understanding​ ​in​ ​ways​ ​that​ ​advantage​ ​the​ ​speaker. Definitions:​ ​The​ ​meaning​ ​of​ ​key​ ​words​ ​(themselves​ ​representing​ ​things,​ ​events,​ ​phenomena, ideas,​ ​etc.)​ ​in​ ​an​ ​argument​ ​should​ ​be​ ​clear​ ​and​ ​precise​ ​to​ ​avoid​ ​not​ ​only​ ​rhetorical​ ​definitions, but​ ​general​ ​problems​ ​that​ ​result​ ​from​ ​ambiguity​ ​or​ ​implicit​ ​assumptions.​ ​Search​ ​for​ ​the​ ​most precise,​ ​accurate​ ​definition:​ ​the​ ​denotative​ ​meaning​ ​of​ ​the​ ​term;​ ​avoid​ ​being​ ​led​ ​astray​ ​by contextual,​ ​associative​ ​definitions:​ ​connotative​ ​meanings​ ​of​ ​the​ ​term.​ ​Being​ ​able​ ​to​ ​tell​ ​a​ ​‘good’ from​ ​a​ ​‘bad’​ ​definition​ ​is​ ​key,​ ​and​ ​must​ ​be​ ​done​ ​in​ ​a​ ​justifiable,​ ​rational​ ​way.​ ​A​ ​good​ ​definition

is​ ​such​ ​because​ ​it​ ​is​ ​more​ ​adequate​ ​than​ ​other​ ​options.​ ​The​ ​best​ ​definitions​ ​are​ ​the​ ​most​ ​adequate ones.​ ​In​ ​order​ ​to​ ​be​ ​the​ ​most​ ​adequate,​ ​a​ ​definition​ ​will​ ​score​ ​best​ ​on​ ​the​ ​following​ ​criteria​ ​for​ ​an adequate​ ​definition:

1. Scope:​ ​The​ ​definition​ ​should​ ​be​ ​neither​ ​too​ ​broad​ ​nor​ ​too​ ​narrow​ ​in​ ​scope.​ ​It​ ​should​ ​not be​ ​so​ ​broad​ ​that​ ​it​ ​applies​ ​to​ ​other​ ​terms​ ​equally​ ​or​ ​so​ ​narrow​ ​that​ ​it​ ​only​ ​defines​ ​a portion​ ​of​ ​the​ ​term.

a. Too​ ​broad:​ ​​A​ ​honeybee​ ​is​ ​an​ ​insect​. b. Too​ ​narrow:​ ​​A​ ​worker​ ​honeybee​ ​only​ ​stings​ ​once.

2. Descriptiveness:​ ​The​ ​definition​ ​should​ ​state​ ​all​ ​of​ ​the​ ​essential​ ​attributes​ ​of​ ​the​ ​term, those​ ​attributes​ ​which​ ​make​ ​the​ ​term​ ​what​ ​it​ ​is,​ ​and​ ​without​ ​which​ ​it​ ​would​ ​cease​ ​to​ ​be the​ ​term.​ ​This​ ​eliminates​ ​connotative​ ​meanings.

a. Decent​ ​definition:​ ​​A​ ​community​ ​college​ ​is​ ​an​ ​institution​ ​of​ ​higher​ ​education without​ ​residential​ ​facilities​ ​often​ ​funded​ ​by​ ​the​ ​government​ ​and​ ​is​ ​characterized by​ ​a​ ​two-year​ ​curriculum​ ​that​ ​leads​ ​to​ ​a​ ​certificate,​ ​associate’s​ ​degree,​ ​or transfer.

3. Non-Redundancy:​ ​The​ ​definition​ ​should​ ​not​ ​refer​ ​to​ ​itself​ ​circularly.​ ​The​ ​meaning​ ​of​ ​a term​ ​should​ ​be​ ​in​ ​words​ ​and​ ​concepts​ ​that​ ​are​ ​different​ ​than​ ​the​ ​term​ ​itself,​ ​or​ ​else​ ​no understanding​ ​is​ ​advanced.

a. Circular:​ ​​Teachers​ ​are​ ​people​ ​who​ ​educate.

4. Clarity:​ ​The​ ​definition​ ​should​ ​be​ ​free​ ​of​ ​obscurity​ ​and​ ​metaphor.​ ​It​ ​should​ ​be​ ​simplest, using​ ​words​ ​and​ ​concepts​ ​that​ ​don’t​ ​beg​ ​for​ ​more​ ​definitions,​ ​and​ ​it​ ​should​ ​be​ ​make references​ ​accurately,​ ​without​ ​appealing​ ​to​ ​analogies,​ ​disanalogies,​ ​or​ ​poetic​ ​language.

a. Too​ ​comparative:​ ​​An​ ​apartment​ ​is​ ​like​ ​a​ ​hotel​ ​room​ ​except​ ​you​ ​stay​ ​there​ ​longer, there’s​ ​no​ ​staff,​ ​and​ ​you​ ​pay​ ​for​ ​utilities.

b. Too​ ​metaphorical:​​ ​The​ ​ocean​ ​is​ ​a​ ​mysterious,​ ​beautiful​ ​void​ ​where​ ​one​ ​can​ ​lose oneself​ ​in​ ​thought.

5. Objectivity:​ ​The​ ​definition​ ​should​ ​not​ ​include​ ​any​ ​kind​ ​of​ ​emotionally​ ​provoking language,​ ​subjectivity,​ ​or​ ​rhetorical​ ​devices.

a. Environmentalists​ ​are​ ​people​ ​I​ ​respect,​ ​people​ ​fighting​ ​to​ ​save​ ​the​ ​world​ ​against greed​ ​and​ ​corruption.