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Environmental Health and Safety Assessment Questions

September 18, 2025/in General Questions /by Besttutor

  1. Cindy is the plant manager from Gemstone, and she has asked you to perform a sound level survey and noise dosimetry in the fabrication shop, which can get pretty noisy when all three mechanical power presses and the 12-foot shear are running at the same time for several hours a day. She also asked that you identify noise level exposures in the adjacent welding department. Your results indicate that the noise levels in the area are just above the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure level for an average day in the fabrication department.
The welding department is adjacent to the fabrication department, and there is no separating wall. The welding operations are not quite as noisy, although the crackle of a well-adjusted MIG welder can be rather loud when welding mild steel. Noise monitoring and dosimetry of the welders indicated an exposure of just over OSHA’s Action Level of 85 Dba. In addition, you remember taking the survey readings and watching the noise level jump in the welding shop every time the power presses or shear cycled in the fabrication area.
After consulting with fellow industrial hygienists, it was determined that setting up a 12′ X 30′ noise barrier wall between the fabrication area and the welding area and adding noise absorption panels to both sides of the barrier wall and to the white-painted concrete walls in the fabrication department would decrease the sound levels in the welding area to several decibels below OSHA’s Action Level.
Of course, these engineering controls will cost $33,000 dollars. This is compared to a continuing hearing conservation program to include annual audiograms, or hearing tests, annual training, and providing noise protection for the welding department which is estimated to cost $9,000 per year. This amount would be saved each year if the engineering controls are installed.
If the company takes out a loan for $33,000 at 5% interest, what will the payback period be for the loan? Please consult your unit lesson for the necessary formulas. What would be your recommendation to the employer with respect to the options available? Please show your work. Make sure you justify your reasoning and that you consider the hierarchy of controls in your discussion.
Your response must be at least 200 words in length in addition to your financial analysis.

2. In the not-too-distant past, it was common for Occupational Safety and Health professionals to consider the hierarchy of controls according to the following priority order:

  1. Engineering controls,
  2. Administrative controls
  3. Personal Protective Equipment

However, eliminating the hazard and substitution have usurped engineering control’s position at the top of the hierarchy although they have always been obvious best options, just not always included in discussions of the hierarchy of controls. Identify two examples where elimination of the hazard or substitution was, or might be, applied as a means of hazard control. Discuss some of the pros and cons of this option as compared to the other options in the hierarchy. You may also select examples from places you have worked or for which you have some familiarity.
Your response must be at least 200 words in length.

3. Your organization, a company that manufactures fitness equipment such as treadmills and elliptical machines, is about to introduce lean concepts into its operations in order to be more competitive with foreign manufacturers. The foreman from the assembly department, however, does not think that his employees have the time to be involved with the lean initiative. Provide a convincing argument about why it is important for the assembly line workers to play a part.
Your response must be at least 75 words in length.

4. A manufacturing facility that makes steel materials handling devices such as hand carts and an assortment of roller carts for moving heavy materials around in manufacturing facilities has decided to start making cantilever storage racking systems. This will require the purchase and installation of a 12-foot hydraulic press brake and a 12-foot shear in the fabrication department along with the necessary tools and dies to bend and punch holes in the rack components that will largely be manufactured from formed sheet metal. Employees have experience working smaller versions of this type of equipment, but room will need to be made and larger pieces of sheet metal will need to be cut and handled. The department will also need to continue to produce existing orders while the new equipment is installed. How can a management of change program be used to reduce risks in such a scenario?
Your response must be at least 75 words in length.

5. Your purchasing department does not want to buy adjustable hydraulic pallet stands for the filter assembly line at a company that makes oil filters for cars and trucks. They state that the current process works just fine and that expensive, adjustable stands are not required in the Occupational Health and Safety Administration standards. The production employees in the facility are largely female and many have worked at the facility for decades. The current process for accessing filter parts entails having assemblers bend over to pick up arm loads of the various filter components from a pallet or bin and placing them on a table beside their respective workstations. The parts are assembled and pressed into place, and the completed product placed in a separate bin. Please provide a risk-based argument as to why the adjustable pallet stands would be the better choice.
Your response must be at least 200 words in length.

6. What benefits can be achieved through benchmarking of safety and health training?
Your response must be at least 75 words.

7. What are some obstacles to successful benchmarking of safety training? Suggest some ways to overcome these obstacles.
Your response must be at least 200 words.

8. Describe how you would conduct formative and summative assessments of Environmental Health and Safety training. Who should conduct each of these assessments?
Your response must be at least 200 words.

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Environmental science homework help

September 18, 2025/in General Questions /by Besttutor

1. When planning group times, which of the following is NOT recommended?
A. Review goals.
B. Consider group size.
C. Identify possible room distractions.
D. Keep child participation at a minimum.
2. “If we put this ice cube out in the sun, what do you think will happen?” This is a/an __________ question.
A. explanation
B. divergent thinking
C. observation
D. convergent thinking
3. Shania said, “I ated it all up!” Her teacher, Mr. Sims, should:
A. not respond since Shania said it incorrectly.
B. find a time during the day to teach Shania the correct way to say it.
C. . say, “You ate it all up? That’s great!”
D. teach a lesson during group time on the past tense of eat.
4. “Sarah be nimble, Sarah be quick, Sarah jump over the candlestick” is a good way to:
A. greet children in the mornings.
B. call children to group time.
C. transition from group time to another activity.
D. say goodbye to children at the end of the day.
5. Teachers evaluate circle-time activities by:
A. observing child behaviors.
B. judging which parts were learned.
C. comparing outcomes to goals.
D. videotaping them and watching teacher behaviors.
6.Teachers usually ask more of this type of question even if it is not recommended:
A. recall.
B. divergent.
C. convergent.
D. open-ended.
7.Mrs. Bates watched David work a puzzle that he had chosen from the ones she put on the table. She listened and commented when David made guesses at the correct location for the pieces. This is an example of a/an __________ activity.
A. structured
B. unstructured
C. child-initiated
D. child-centered
8. Kayla is 18 months old. She looked at Mrs. Crenshaw and said, “seblisboo.” Mrs. Crenshaw did not understand any of what Kayla said, but her best response would be:
A. “Say that again slowly.”
B. “Did you want to go outside?
C. “Speak clearly. I can’t understand you.”
D. “You don’t mean it!”
9.“Stand if you had orange juice for breakfast and move to the door” is a:
A. reward statement.
B. positive reinforcement statement.
C. transition statement.
D. statement increasing child memory.
10. An in-depth investigation of a topic selected by a small group within a class is a:
A. project.
B. plan.
C. curriculum.
D. lesson plan.
11. When learning a finger play, children usually learn the __________ first.
A. actions or words
B. rhythm and measured beat
C. melody
D. rhymes and pauses
12. Chants contain:
A. rhythmic word patterns.
B. finger plays and action body plays.
C. short songs.
D. choruses.
13. Researchers believe that engaging children in daily conversations could be up to __________ times more effective than simply reading to them.
A. 3
B. 6
C. 10
D. 12
14. Which is an example of recasting?
A.
Child: “I went to the beach.”
Teacher: “The beach is fun. I like playing in the sand and watching the waves.”

B.
Child: “I went to the beach.”
Teacher: “That’s nice.”

C.
Child: “I went to the beach.”
Teacher: “Let me teach you how to write the word beach.”

D.
Child: “I went to the beach.”
Teacher: “Maybe you can draw a picture of the beach later and tell the class all about it.”
15. Activities that are repeated each day, calling each child by name, and introducing words to songs without the music at first are all important considerations for group time when:
A. working with young preschoolers.
B. second-language learners are present.
C. striving to foster speaking skills.
D. nurturing active listening.
16. At circle time children:
A. don’t always sit in a circle.
B. sit an equal distance from one another.
C. should sit in the same spot each day.
D. should sit in small chairs placed in a circle.
17. Margaret told Sam, “Don’t put the baby in the stroller. It might fall out.” This is an example of __________ speech.
A. representational
B. instrumental
C. regulatory
D. interactional
18. Blowing a soft bird whistle to gather children to circle:
A. was not recommended but is a good idea.
B. is okay but flicking the lights is a good idea, too.
C. might work well and a gathering song is good idea, too.
D. All of the above
19.Karen asked, “Where does rain come from?” The best response for her teacher is:
A. “The clouds.”
B. “I don’t really know, Karen.”
C. “How could we find out where rain comes from?”
D. “That’s really hard to understand, Karen.”
20. If conducting a group with 2 and 3 year olds their group participation may depend on:
A. how many children are present.
B. whether they like who they are sitting next to.
C. their feelings of trust and security.
D. whether they are touching and feeling the same objects as their peers.

21. Those who study research usually recommend that early literacy instruction in a preschool should concentrate on:
A. rhyming, alliteration and fluency, and phonics and printing.
B. letter naming, vocabulary, the alphabet principle, print awareness, and phonics.
C. phonics, rhyming, phonemic awareness, printing, and the alphabet.
D. phonemic awareness, comprehension, vocabulary, and fluency.
22. Research shows that __________ percent of three- and four-year-old children can consistently identify rhyming words.
A. 10
B. 15
C. 20
D. 25
23.Speaking, listening, writing, and reading comprise what is known as:
A. emergent learning.
B. curriculum.
C. communication.
D. language.
24. Noted early childhood experts worry that preschool reading-skill instruction activities may:
A. reduce play time.
B. intimidate parents.
C. accelerate mental growth.
D. lead kindergartners to be bored in kindergarten.
25. Which is NOT true about Common Core Standards?
A. It is controversial in the teaching of reading.
B. It is a standard reference for reading teachers.
C. All states will be forced to comply with these standards.
D. It shows an advance is rigor and content.
26.Invented spelling is all of the following EXCEPT it:
A. is ultimately replaced with conventional spelling.
B. often uses letters to represent entire words.
C. is a taught skill, not a natural one.
D. is an attempt to spell a word based on the writer’s knowledge of the spelling system.
27. Transitional kindergartens have developed to:
A. increase language skills over the summer.
B. take the place of regular kindergarten
C. work with unruly children before kindergarten.
D. let parents know their child lags behind.
28. Rosa is a newborn. As she grows, which will she learn to control last?
A. Her arms
B. Her hands
C. Her fingers
D. Her head
29.The language arts are:
A. thought to include six arts areas.
B. interrelated and interdependent.
C. separate, distinct areas of study.
D. not taught until kindergarten.
30. Which is NOT a prerequisite skill for handwriting?
A. Letter perception
B. Left-to-right understanding
C. The ability to form triangles and squares
D. A desire to write
31.Hannah’s mother said, “Hannah is such a pencil-and-paper kid.” It is likely that Hannah:
A. does not enjoy being read to.
B. will learn to write early, forming her letters perfectly.
C. will be a good reader.
D. has an interest in writing earlier than her peers.
32. Alphabet letters and numerals:
A. are graphic representatives for words.
B. are representative symbols.
C. should not be introduced until kindergarten.
D. None of the above
33. If you ask a young child to give you a red ball and he brings a blue one, the child does not possess the word red in his __________ vocabulary.
A. sight
B. reading
C. oral
D. growing
34.The speed and accuracy that individual children display in naming alphabet letters is called:
A. consistency.
B. fluency.
C. articulation.
D. velocity.
35.Goals of early childhood centers might include all of the following EXCEPT:
A. each student having the ability to print every lowercase and uppercase alphabet letter.
B. printing in a lineal left to right direction.
C. relating writing to other language arts areas.
D. blending sounds in a few words.
36.Ms. Hadaway asked Carly if she would like her name on the paper. When Carly said that she did, Mrs. Hadaway should have written it in the __________ corner.
A. upper left
B. upper right
C. lower left
D. lower right
37.Considering physical growth, preschoolers’ printing attempts can be described as:
A. controlled and uniform.
B. accurate and time-consuming.
C. facilitated by large-muscle development.
D. writers of tiny print.
38.Which of the following is TRUE of reading methods?
A. Whole-language has been proven to be the most comprehensive reading method.
B. Quality literature aids success for all reading methods.
C. A 1:2 teacher/child ratio is the best scenario for teaching reading.
D. Experiences focused on written language are the most beneficial to children.
39.Which of the following is true about new ideas regarding children’s writing development compared to older ideas?
A. Speech and listening were thought to be accomplished without direct or formal teaching.
B. Older ideas said that children should not be taught to print and read until they turned four years old.
C. Writing, reading, listening, and speaking skills were thought of as developing in the same way.
D. Children were declared mature enough in kindergarten and first grade to have the skills necessary for instruction to print and read.

40.Most early educators would agree that learning to read is a process that begins:
A. at birth.
B. with a child’s first scribbles.
C. with a child’s first spoken words.
D. when the recognition of uppercase and lowercase letters is mastered.

 

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Species Interactions

September 18, 2025/in General Questions /by Besttutor

Prepare: Studying Species interactions provides us with the knowledge of ecological processes and natural selection, which can be used in conservation management. As you have learned from the course materials and assignments, highly specific species interactions can exert selective pressure on each partner which can spur adaptations leading to co-evolution. If species partners are missing in an ecosystem, then populations can grow out of control or decline below a minimum viable threshold. The knowledge of these interactions can help us manage and restore habitats by ensuring that food webs are intact.

Review: After reading this week’s assigned materials, view the following videos to learn about different experimental approaches for studying species interactions and their impact on populations, food webs, and plant and animal communities. As you review the videos, reflect on how these methods and their results can be used to manage populations and habitats.

Write: Your post will be based on the alphabetical order of your last names and should be between 250-300 words. State the research question posed by the scientists in the study. Explain how their experimental design answered the research questions. Identify one unique methodology or research approach that was presented in the video. Explain why you think this approach is unique and indicate how it can be used to address an environmental problem

  1. review the following video and develop your post using two scholarly or credible sources in addition to your textbook. ◦ Western Researchers Find Fear Itself Affects Predator-prey Relationship (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

YOU MUST USE THE ATTACHED TEXT (CHAPTERS) AS ONE (1) OF YOUR RESOURCES ALONG WITH TWO (2) OTHER RESOURCES. THAT MAKES A TOTAL OF THREE (3) IF THESE SIMPLE INSTRUCTIONS ARE NOT FOLLOWED I WILL DISPUTE AND FIND SOMEONE THAT CAN HANDLE SIMPLE INSTRUCTION. THERE WILL BE NO REVISIONS. IF YOU CANNOT DO IT RIGHT THE FIRST TIME THEN I WILL FIND SOMEONE THAT CAN MAKE SURE TO READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS AND FOLLOW THEM!!!!!!

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Personal Reflection Essay about Media & the Environment

September 18, 2025/in General Questions /by Besttutor

Media & the Environment – Personal Reflection Essay

Write a 3-4 page double-spaced reflection essay on how you engage with

environmental media, whether as something for education, entertainment, or

aesthetic experience. Engaging with the concepts or theories of AT LEAST TWO

READINGS from this class (with full citations), and drawing connections to film

genres and modes of engagement we have watched and discussed in class, choose a

specific textual example (a particular film, television show, commercial, online

video, series, etc) that you believe impacted your relationship to the environment

and environmental issues, and discuss how it has shaped your environmental values

and behavior. Include a detailed textual analysis of one scene or sequence that

exemplifies how the film, television, or online text creates and communicates its

environmental message.

 

3 pages, double-spaced and printed two-sided.

Due in class Thursday March 8.

 

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The history and association of gender and technology

September 18, 2025/in General Questions /by Besttutor

Traditionally, technology has been associated with rationality,  objectivity and structure; traits oft considered “masculine” in the  traditional societal definition of gender roles. While some technologies  have largely been male-dominated, throughout history, women have had an  often unrecognized presence in making significant contributions to  these technological advancements. One such technology would be the  digital computer. While its development is generally viewed as a product  of male logic and rationality, much of the progress in this area has  required an intuitive, interactive and generally less structured  “feminine” approach. These culturally appropriated gender  characteristics as well as historic gender roles have had a significant  influence in consumerism and technological development. In this  activity, you will explore technologies that may be gender-specific and  evaluate technological innovations that have shaped current society.

Perform an internet search on technologies that may be “gendered”. Then respond to the following:

  • Briefly discuss the history and association of gender and  technology. How has gender mattered in the historical development and  marketing of technology?
  • Provide at least two examples of technologies that are traditionally  considered “masculine” and “feminine”. On what basis are you making the  distinctions?
  • How is technology helping to reshape traditional gender roles and  gender identities in the 21st century? Provide real world examples.
  • What is the driving force behind this breakdown of gender barriers?

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Environmental Modelling in QGIS

September 18, 2025/in General Questions /by Besttutor

GIS Assessment – Geography and Planning UWA

 

 

Full Report: Environmental Modelling in QGIS Introduction This is your second piece of assessment for the unit. It tests the skills and knowledge you have acquired in the unit within all weeks of the unit (particularly the applied skills from labs 5-8). This second assignment provides a reflection on your ability to demonstrate comprehensive spatial analysis and cartographic skills using QGIS. The assignment will tailor your spatial analysis appropriate for answering a specific geographical issue which can benefit from using spatial research to support more effective environmental decision-making. The assignment will allow you to demonstrate your knowledge around map algebra and analysis, data compatibility and standardisation, environmental modelling and the use of QGIS spatial analytics. It is worth 40% of the unit assessment. Requirements

 Word limit: 2000 words maximum

 Submission format: Word document only

 Word file size: less than 20mb (compress your maps in Word)

 There is a limit to the number of maps (see below)

 Please note there are strict penalties for infringing these requirements – full guidelines are in the unit outline document for you to refer to. These include what is included in the word count, penalties for exceeding the word count and/or incorrect file submission (and size), late submissions and plagiarism.

Marking criteria A full marking criteria matrix can be found in the assessment folder on Blackboard. Please check this to ensure you meet all the higher level criteria for producing an outstanding assignment. In addition, you need to provide sufficient response to the assignment brief as detailed below. Assignment brief For this assignment you will generate a report which analyses the spatial data provided to you for processing within QGIS. Similar to your first assignment, you will need to be both precise and concise for reporting your findings. You will need to write your report as if it is being presented to the Australian Government’s Department of the Environment and Energy. You are acting on behalf of a local conservation agency to undertake analysis to spatially investigate the wildfire threats to a selected native species. To complete the assignment you are provided with the following information:

 Spatial data for your chosen geography (select ONE of the three options)

 Guidelines on what to include in your report

 A grading matrix on how you will be assessed

 

 

GIS Assessment – Geography and Planning UWA

 

 

To complete your assignment, you will have to use the QGIS skills you have learnt in the labs to process the data provided and produce the required outputs. If you cannot remember how to undertake these analyses, then you will need to refer to the lab instructions and apply them to the new data you have selected to use. Geography topics First, select ONE of the following three topics. Download the corresponding data folder from LMS for your chosen topic. You will need to do all the same things we covered in the labs to set up your QGIS project, add the data, process and analyse the data, and produce the mapped outputs. However, be careful to ensure you are answering the required tasks for the assignment (below), as you are not required to undertake all of the processing you completed for the lab data.

 Topic 1: This topic will investigate the environmental threats to the native species of your choice in the state of Tasmania

 

 Topic 2: This topic will investigate the environmental threats to the native species of your choice in the Far North region of Queensland

 

 Topic 3: This topic will investigate the environmental threats to the native species of your choice in the Hunter River Catchment in New South Wales

The following eleven datasets are provided for each of the topics for their respective geographies:

Dataset Description Data type

Source

Boundary Tasmania – State Far North – Region Hunter River – Catchment

Polygon ABS & data.gov.au

Elevation Altitude height (metre) Raster Geoscience Australia

Land use 18 land use types Raster ABARES

Land cover Varies by region Raster TERN

Native vegetation

Areas of native vegetation Polygon Dep. of Environment & Energy

Temperature Annual maximum temperature (°C) Raster BOM

Wind speed Annual mean wind speed (m/s) Raster Global Wind Atlas

State roads State road network Line Geoscience Australia

Fire stations proximity

Distance to fire stations (metre) Raster data.gov.au

Water hydrants proximity

Distance to water hydrants (metre) Raster data.gov.au

 

 

 

GIS Assessment – Geography and Planning UWA

 

 

You will need to select a native species of your choice for the geographical area you have selected by sourcing and downloading the data from ALA (see Lab 8 for instructions how to use the web databased). All data, except your downloaded species data (you will need to download, import and project these data), have been projected using EPSG:3577 – GDA94 / Australian Albers. For raster layers, the data are at 1km resolution. You should run your analyses at this resolution for your selected topic to produce the required outputs. Some of the data have already been preprocessed for you following the same processes you undertook in the labs (e.g. proximity to fire stations and water hydrants), whilst others will require you undertaking all the processing steps yourself (as per what you did in the associated lab using the data for a different location). Use the same size hex grids as in the labs. You will need to think about reclass values yourself and determine what is appropriate. You’ll use the same weighting approach we used in the labs to combine data layers. You can use the map layout templates from the labs as a starting point if you wish, but remember that what you need to produce for your assignment requires different map outputs, so you can’t directly use the templates as they are (see below). Your assignment analyses For your chosen topic’s species and geography you will need to complete the following analyses in QGIS:

 Kernel density distribution of the native species

 Use of hex grids to summarise species counts

 Identify the core territory and total home ranges of the native species

 Using ruggedness, proximity to native vegetation and state roads, and appropriate land uses construct a standardised cost surface to use for calculating one habitat corridor between a selected source and the closest destination core territory. You will need to provide the rationale for why you selected these in your report.

 Using elevation, slope, aspect, land cover, temperature and wind speed generate a weighted spatial distribution of potential fire hazard.

 Determine the potential fire emergency response (adaptive capacity) by calculating a weighted spatial distribution combining road, fire station and hydrant proximities.

 Calculate the population exposure for your native species, and then the vulnerability of this species by weighting with the adaptive capacity.

 Using weights generate the spatial distribution of fire risk through combining your hazard and vulnerability outputs to determine the overall fire risk to the native species.

What you need to include in your written report Once you have undertaken the above analysis steps you will need to write a report to present your findings. Your report should be structured using the following sections – make sure you include a suitable and informative title for each sub- heading. Your report should include the following text and three map layouts only.

 

 

GIS Assessment – Geography and Planning UWA

 

 

 Title of report

 Executive summary (50-100 words) – Summarise what is in your report and the key findings

 Background information to the species and geography – context to the topic; why is it important and of interest to study spatially? Reference the literature to cite where you obtain your facts.

 Species interactions – Brief summary of data, methods and rationale – Map layout 1: To include maps of species raster density, home range and wildlife corridor – Describe your results and interpret findings

 Wildfire hazard – Brief summary of data, methods and rationale – Map layout 2: To include raster maps of fire hazard and contributing factors – Describe your results and interpret findings

 Environmental risk – Brief summary of data, methods and rationale – Map layout 3: To include maps of hex grid fire hazard, vulnerability, and overall risk – Describe your results and interpret findings

 Overall discussion – Link up the findings from your three analysis sections to identify some good story threads which are interesting for you to discuss given the data findings you produce. Talk about any uncertainty you have with outputs that you wish to communicate to the conservation agency. Reference literature to help you support your interpretations

 Final recommendation – Based on all of your results provide a firm statement to your conservation agency as to what you strongly recommend they should tell the government ministry in terms of what environmental decisions should be supported from your findings (max 50 words)

 Reference list – Full reference list using Harvard citation style (quality over quantity is preferred on references – think about using peer-reviewed academic sources which are very relevant to the discussion of your topic and spatial approach used)

You will need to undertake some reading to help you write the content of your report. Ensure that you reference the literature properly and follow the Harvard citation style (see the library website if you need help on this). You can only include the maps in the three layouts as stated above – any others submitted will not be considered for grading. Remember your report needs to be less than 2000 words including all words except your reference list. Structuring your report into clear subsections is good practice for technical report writing. Top tips Here are some issues you might like to reflect upon from what you have learned in the lecture-tutorials and how these issues may relate to the application of GIS you have undertaken in this assignment:

 

 

GIS Assessment – Geography and Planning UWA

 

 

 

 Standardisation of data

 Appropriate scale of application

 Data quality

 Assumptions, error and validation Submission Submit your assignment by the submission deadline (see the unit outline document) via the assignment submission link on Blackboard in the assessments folder.

 

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Mid term

September 18, 2025/in General Questions /by Besttutor

Question Short Answer/Essay – points Remove | Edit There are two hazardous materials classification systems. Both were developed to assist responders in identifying and managing hazardous materials found in any location. Describe them in detail.

 

Utilize literature, provide citations when needed, and list the references. Use APA-standard.

 

Question Short Answer/Essay – points Remove | Edit Define a hazardous material. Utilize literature, provide citations when needed, and list the references. Use APA-standard.

 

Question Short Answer/Essay – points Remove | Edit How does your Department handle fish and wildlife issues?

 

What agency is responsible and where does it reside in the ICS framework?

 

If you do not currently work for a Department, use the California Wildlife Plan provided in Week 2 as your source of information and answer these same questions.

 

Utilize literature, provide citations when needed, and list the references. Use APA-standard.

 

Question Short Answer/Essay – points Remove | Edit Norfolk Southern Railroad was levied penalties in excess of $9M for environmental damages resulting from a train derailment in Pennsylvania.

 

In your opinion, should operators be held financially responsible for hazmat incidents?

 

Explain your answer using specific facts presented in the article provided in class.

 

Utilize literature, provide citations when needed, and list the references.

 

Use APA-standard.

 

Question Short Answer/Essay – points Remove | Edit It is the responsibility of the Incident Commander to protect human health first and then the environment and fish and wildlife resources second.

 

As IC, describe the agencies you would contact and ask to serve in either as a Unified Command or as technical specialists on your Incident Management Team.

Explain how you chose these agencies/individuals.

 

Utilize literature, provide citations when needed, and list the references.

Use APA-standard.

 

 

Question Short Answer/Essay – points Remove | Edit According the the “Legal Liabilities for Incident Commanders” article, there are three areas of incident readiness that are key to winning legal challenges to our actions as Incident Commander. Name and briefly describe them.

 

Utilize literature, provide citations when needed, and list the references. Use APA-standard.

 

Question Short Answer/Essay – points Remove | Edit As a Hazardous Materials Manager, you have a degree of personal liability, with the test of this liability being personal negligence and/or recklessness.

 

In the case of Anthony Mots, the appellate court found that he did not have time to deliberate his actions.

How do you feel about your personal liability?

What can you do to protect yourself from being found personally liable?

Utilize literature, provide citations when needed, and list the references. Use APA-standard.

 

Question Short Answer/Essay – points Remove | Edit “Paper Plans” for hazardous materials response are not effective alone. There are a number of areas, according to the author of “Disaster Response” (Reading 1 for week 4), that are essential to ensure that a paper plan becomes an effective, useful tool in disaster response. Describe those things that can transform a paper plan into an effective one.

 

Utilize literature, provide citations when needed, and list the references. Use APA-standard.

 

Question Short Answer/Essay – points Remove | Edit In FEMA Unit 5, the emergency response planning process was discussed. What are the 6 steps of this planning process?

 

Describe each briefly.

 

Utilize literature, provide citations when needed, and list the references. Use APA-standard.

 

Question Short Answer/Essay – points Remove | Edit

You are now half-way through this course.

 

Please describe which material you found most interesting or applicable to you and why.

 

Is there anything that you had hoped to learn by this point in the course and didn’t? Explain.

 

Reply Reply to allForward Move to folder Delete

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Environment

September 18, 2025/in General Questions /by Besttutor
  1. How has modern society dramatically altered the carbon cycle?
  2. Without the greenhouse effect, life on Earth would not exist. But too much of a good
    thing can spell trouble. Explain.
  3. How is the “free-rider” problem so potentially vexing to the challenge of mitigating
    climate change?
  4. How does a cap-and-trade system for carbon emissions differ from the traditional
    regulatory approach?
  5. Describe the example given of the market-based “solution” to climate change that
    exacerbated global uneven development. Did this program at least achieve its stated environmental goals?

Exercise 9.1 The Ethics of CO2

In this chapter, we have reviewed how the puzzle of CO2 might be addressed by markets, institutions, and political economy. Explain how you might understand this problem using an ethics framework (as described in Chapter 5). How might an anthropocentric approach differ from an ecocentric one? Do polar bears have intrinsic value? How might pragmatism and utilitarianism be employed to consider options for the control of carbon? What are the limits of an ethical approach to CO2?

Exercise 9.2 Can You Do Better than the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change?

Outline an international climate treaty that would reduce emissions around the world to their 1990 levels. Things you will want to consider include whether stipulations will be the same for all countries, whether emissions or consumption of carbon is targeted, whether there will be trading or other kinds of flexibility, whether there will be monitoring or enforcement? How? Will offsets be allowed from forests or other efforts at sequestration? Once you have a sketch of what your treaty might look like, consider the following: What are the weaknesses in the treaty? What nations are more or less likely to sign on to your treaty? Why? What kinds of further compromises might be necessary to achieve a treaty that maximizes participation?

Exercise 9.3 Should Cities Think about Climate Change?

Visit and read the Climate Action Plan for the City of Seattle (http://www.seattle.gov/ environment/climate_plan.htm). What kinds of steps does that city envision for itself? To what degree are their efforts directed toward reducing greenhouse emissions and to what degree are they about adapting to change? Given this is a “global problem,” what motivates the city to address these issues at all? Do you think cities can make a difference in climate change, or is this something that requires a coordinated global action? Why or why not? What is the role of cities in governing climate change?

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Ecological Footprint

September 18, 2025/in General Questions /by Besttutor

1. Ecological Footprint

 

Estimating your overall impact on the environment is a daunting task when you consider all the variables involved. A tool for roughly estimating your environmental impact has been developed and it presents the information in a manner that is easily visualized despite the underlying complexities. It is known as an “ecological footprint”, and it describes the area of land needed to supply the resources used and wastes produced by each individual. Nature’s ability to provide resources and process wastes is known as “natural capital”, and the goal of sustainable living is to use resources wisely so as to avoid depleting natural capital, enabling it to be available to future generations. Ecological footprint analysis allows us to examine per-capita (per-person) utilization of natural capital (globally or by nation), the amount of natural capital available (globally or by nation), and the surplus/deficit in natural capital globally or in individual countries. We can then examine the impact of humans on the Earth’s natural capital on the whole or by individual nation.

 

Ecological footprints are calculated by examining the amount of land used for:

(a.) Cultivating food crops

(b.) Grazing livestock

(c.) Growing timber

(d.) Harvesting fish and other organisms from oceans

(e.) Housing, infrastructure (roads, bridges), transportation, shopping, energy production

(f.) Sequestering in trees the carbon dioxide produced by driving, electricity usage, etc.

 

By summing all of these land areas, an individual’s ecological footprint can be calculated. So how much natural capital is there per person? If we take the current global population and divide it by the number of acres (or hectares, in metric measurement) of biologically productive land, we find that there are currently 4.7 acres of productive land on the planet per person. Therefore, in order to live sustainably, each person on the planet should have an ecological footprint of 4.7 acres of less. While individuals in developing countries often have footprints at or below this value, citizens of highly industrialized countries often exceed it by sizable amount.

 

What is the connection between ecological footprints and biodiversity? In order for natural ecosystems to persist and support the diversity of other organisms on the planet, area must be set aside from development and utilization. As the human population grows and demands on resources become ever larger, the ability to preserve large areas of natural habitat become more problematic, and biodiversity initiatives suffer. In addition to preserving biodiversity, reducing humanity’s ecological footprint has a number of other positive results. A great source for learning about the ecological footprint is from the Global Footprint Network (https://www.footprintnetwork.org). Some of the pages you should look into are highlighted below.

 

About the Ecological Footprint

FAQ about the Ecological Footprint.

https://www.footprintnetwork.org/faq/

 

Ecological Wealth of Nations

Interactive maps giving a variety of perspectives regarding the ecological footprint and biocapacity

https://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/ (Click “Enter.”)

 

Mathis Wackernagel at TEDx San Franciso

A 16 minute talk by Mathis Wackernagel, President of Global Footprint Network, describing how much nature we have and use https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3M29BY86bP4&feature=youtu.be

 

Go to 2. Activity: Determining Your Ecological Footprint on the next page to complete the assignment.

2. Activity: Determining Your Ecological Footprint

In this exercise, you will utilize an online calculator to examine your ecological footprint, compare it to the average footprint in the United States and other countries, and critically examine ways to reduce it. We will utilize an online Ecological Footprint Quiz for our analyses.

 

Calculating Your Ecological Footprint:

 

1) Go to this site: http://www.footprintcalculator.org. Click on “CALCULATE YOUR FOOTPRINT” located on the very top of the page, right side. (Alternatively if you do not see that link, scroll down a bit. Under the words “What is your impact? Calculate your Ecological Footprint and personal Overshoot Day,” there is a “CALCULATE NOW!” button/link. Click/press on it.) On the page that opens, click “TAKE THE FIRST STEP” and log in with Facebook or continue as guest with your email (you can even put in a fake email if you’re concerned about that.) You will go through a series of questions.

 

2) Be honest and don’t try to impress anyone! Once you complete the calculator, you will get a number of acres that it takes to support you.

 

3) (5 points) Fill in the blank: Total number of gha need to support me. _____________

 

4) (10 points) To complete the table look at the bar graphs generated, place your mouse over each category and you will get a number of gha (global hectares) for each. Fill in each box below with that gha number. Then you will calculate the percentage of each category. For example, if your total ecological footprint in gha was 7.9 and food counted for 1.6, then you will need to divide 1.6 by 7.9 and multiply by 100 to get 20%.

5)

 

  Footprint Area (gha) Percentage of Total
Food    
Mobility    
Shelter    
Goods    
Services    
Total Footprint  

 

 

 

6) (15 points) The average footprint per capita for the United States in 2016 was 8.1 gha which ranked the 6th highest in the world. (Go here and scroll to the bottom of the page to find average footprints for other countries.)

 

How does your Total Footprint compare to the US average? Did this surprise you? Why do you think your footprint is different than the U.S. average?

 

7) (5 points) How many Earths would be needed to support the human population if everyone lived like you? Provide some discussion on what this number means to you.

 

 

Analyzing Changes:

 

8) (10 points) Return to the Ecological Footprint Quiz and click the orange button below that says “Re-take the Quiz.” Make one reasonable change that would reduce your ecological footprint (for instance, drive less, or buy a more efficient car). To do this, simply change one of the answers in the quiz and continue going through the whole quiz until you get to the end. Describe the change and record the reduction in Total Footprint that resulted in the table below. After recording the change, click on “Re-take the Quiz,” and repeat the procedure for two remaining changes.

9)

 

 

Change

Reduction Total Footprint (gha)
 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10) (5 points) By what percentage did your total footprint go down after all three changes had been made?

 

11) (15 points) Seeing the reductions in footprint that occur as a result of these changes, would you be willing to immediately implement any of them? Explain why or why not using at least 5 well-written sentences.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

12) (5 points) We will now explore average ecological footprints for various countries. Go to https://www.footprintnetwork.org/.  Scroll down a bit. Under the words “Passionate about data? Check out our Ecological Footprint Explorer open data platform,” there is a “DIVE INTO DATA!” button/link. Click/press on it. (Alternatively if you do not see the button, you can scroll all the way down to the bottom of the page, and under “TOOLS & RESOURCES,” click the “Open Data Platform” link.) On the page that appears, click “Enter.” You’ll see a clickable map of the world which shows each country’s Ecological Deficit/Reserve. Now, select three countries with similar standards of living (compare U.S./Canada to countries in Western Europe) and three countries with different standards of living (compare U.S./Canada to developing countries in South America, Africa, or Asia). List the “Ecological Footprint” and “Biocapacity” value for your six chosen comparison countries in the table below. Then, subtract the number of acres for Ecological Footprint from Biocapacity to find the Ecological Deficit or Reserve (a negative number will be a deficit, positive a reserve).

 

 

 

Country Ecological Footprint (gha) Biocapacity (gha) Ecological Deficit or Reserve

(gha)

United States 8.1 gha 3.6 gha 3.6 – 8.1 = -4.5 gha deficit
Similar:      
Similar:      
Similar:      
Different:      
Different:      
Different:      

 

 

 

13) (10 points) Choose at least one “similar” country and one “different” country from the table you just filled in and provide some analysis on how it compares with your country.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

14) (20 points) In today’s global economy, goods flow from one country to another like never before, allowing the natural capital from one country to be utilized in many other countries. Some have argued that it is unethical for developed countries to fuel their consumptive lifestyles by using natural capital from poorer, developing countries. Do you agree with this viewpoint? Why or why not? Use at least 5 well-written sentences to explain.

 

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Lab 1 – The Scientific Method

September 18, 2025/in General Questions /by Besttutor

Revised: August 7, 2019 1

ENVR 1401 – BACKGROUND

Lab 1 – Scientific Method

Learning Objectives:

1. Outline the steps to the scientific method.

2. Identify testable observations.

3. Distinguish between dependent and independent variables.

4. Collect, organize, and present scientific data.

Overview

This activity explores the concept and application of the scientific method. To distinguish true cause- effect

relationships from associations or perceptions, phenomena must be investigated using designed experiments

and careful observations that can be repeated by others.

The scientific method is typically discussed as a standardized, linear process that includes the following steps and involves specific skills:

1. Make observations or gather data ➔ often leads to a question

2. Formulate a hypothesis which leads to an associated prediction

3. Design an appropriate test/experiment to assess the hypothesis/prediction

4. Conduct test/experiment, record and analyze the results (including mathematical and statistical evaluation)

5. Interpret the results and draw conclusions ➔ accept, revise, or reject the hypothesis

6. Reporting the results (e.g., laboratory report, formal memorandum, peer reviewed article)

 

 

Revised: August 7, 2019 2

But, as shown in the flow chart, the process is not linear. It is cyclical because good science stimulates

further thought and mandates that ideas be challenged and further tested to demonstrate that the results can be repeated (iterative process). A scientific hypothesis is an informed, testable, and predictive explanation

of a natural phenomenon, process or event. If, upon testing, the scientific hypothesis fails the test, it must be

rejected or may be modified and subject to further testing. Models are mathematical or conceptual

hypotheses that provide useful perspectives, though often limited by oversimplification of the process they represent.

If, however, a scientific hypothesis continues to pass repeated tests and the predictions have been verified,

then it is considered a corroborated hypothesis. A highly corroborated hypothesis which has been repeatedly tested and is supported by significant reliable evidence is considered a scientific fact or natural

law, such as the existence of gravity as a property of all matter.

A unifying and consistent explanation of fundamental natural processes or phenomena that is constructed of

corroborated hypotheses and scientific facts is a scientific theory. Scientific theories, such as quantum

mechanics, thermodynamics, plate tectonics, evolution, or relativity, are the most reliable and comprehensive form of human knowledge. And, as we gain more knowledge through the application of the

scientific method, our understanding of the universe in which we live and our theories on how it functions

and evolves must continue to be refined.

Further value of the scientific method is derived from honing and applying necessary skills to develop

scientific knowledge:

◼ making, recording, and reporting unbiased measurements

◼ classifying data

◼ translating and analyzing information

◼ applying deductive and inductive logic

◼ critical, interpretive, and creative thinking

◼ identifying and controlling variables

The scientific method established an approach to a problem and enforces scientific thought that attempts to

eliminate bias in the resulting data and conclusions. Science relies upon empirical evidence which is

observable and measurable by more than one researcher. But as humans, we tend to view the world and

solutions to problems within our personal framework. For example, if a town along the river is repeatedly

flooded, then the structural engineer believes the problem will be solved by building a dam and the politician may believe than any solution is too expensive or unpopular and would be detrimental to being re-elected. In

contrast, the natural resource manager may prefer limiting urban development and re- establishing native

habitat. The propensity of humans to perceive the world from their perspective is good reason to have a healthy dose of skepticism — to constantly question your beliefs, observations, and conclusions.

Scientific methodology has a long history that dates back over 1,000 years, with many cultures and

individuals contributing to its development. Ancient Egyptian papyri describe methods of medical diagnosis and empiricism. Empirical evidence found in nature allows us to describe and explain natural processes and

natural laws. The first experimental scientific method was developed by Muslim scientists. Alhazen (Ibn al-

Haytham, 965-1039) is credited with introducing experimentation and quantification in his work on optics, among his significant contributions to astronomy, engineering, physics, medicine, and science in general. In

Europe the Renaissance resulted in renewed interest in the ideas and science developed during the Greek and

Roman empires.

The logic and philosophical approaches of Aristotle and Socrates were improved upon by Francis Bacon in

the early 1600s. Descartes formalized the guiding principles for the scientific method, strengthening the link between science and mathematics. Galileo also showed the importance of testing or experimenting to look

for the opposite of a consequence to potentially disprove an idea. In the late 1800s, Peirce outlined objective

methods using deduction and induction as complementary approaches, as well as outlining the basic scheme for hypothesis and testing that we currently use.

 

 

Revised: August 7, 2019 3

Deduction and induction are types of argument or logical approaches. Deduction, in simplest terms, is the

logical process of arriving at a conclusion based on premises (e.g., facts, statements, laws) that have been verified. Induction, in simplest terms, is the logical process of arriving at a conclusion based on premises

that are assumed to be true; therefore, some conclusions of inductive thought processes may be false.

Deduction is generally described as moving from the more general to the more specific. For example, the Law of Gravity expresses the force that attracts objects to each other. In common terms, it explains why

objects fall toward Earth or, in the environment, why water flows downhill. Based on the Law of Gravity we

would deduce that weathered soil materials would also move down slope. Induction is generally described

as moving from specific observations or details to a general statement. For example, we begin by making observations or measurements, detect patterns or regularities, and develop a general conclusion. In

application, if you touch a stove ten times and each time you touch the stove, you burn your hand. You

might conclude that the stove is always hot. But this conclusion may or may not be true.

The scientific method can never “absolutely prove” or provide “truth” to understand. To paraphrase

Einstein, “No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me

wrong.” For this reason, and to overcome the human bias for seeing what we want to see, we need to consider that a cause-effect relationship exists (hypothesis) AND consider that a perceived cause-effect

relationship does not exist (null hypothesis).

Step 1 – Make observations or gather data

Awareness of our environment may lead to posing a question. Such awareness may result from making

observations around us, gathering preliminary data that reflect environmental conditions, or by researching

and reading published work of others. This approach often leads to the recognition of a broad problem that warrants further investigation. For example, “Is our water reservoir clean and safe?” Exploring this question

by further reading and research may allow refinement of the question. For example, “Is chemical “A” in our

water supply reservoir?” The question will provide a basis for further investigation.

Step 2 – Formulate a hypothesis which leads to an associated prediction

To formulate a hypothesis, it is important to focus the posed question and to define a specific parameter to

be investigated with an expected result. The prediction may be 1) there will be a specific outcome in the

experiment, 2) there will be a statistical difference between the tested subject and a control, or 3) there will

be no difference between the tested subject and the control. Formulation of the hypothesis is critical because it will help to define and outline the experiment in terms of the specific parameters (independent and

dependent variables) that are being assessed.

The hypothesis is a statement of the most likely outcome of the experiment. More appropriately, the

hypothesis (designated by HA) should be viewed as a prediction that can be tested, is not ambiguous, and is dichotomous (a “yes” or “no” statement).

HA: Less than 5 mg/l of chemical “A” in the reservoir water will be lethal to bluegill minnows.

But remember that the prediction could be erroneous. Therefore, a null hypothesis (designated by H0) must also be developed:

H0: Less than 5 mg/l of chemical “A” in the reservoir water will not be lethal to bluegill minnows.

Range of tolerance — In environmental science, we often investigate the relationship between organisms

and the abiotic (non-living or physical) characteristics of the environment, such as temperature, moisture,

nutrient availability, and nutrient toxicity. Most organisms thrive under optimum environmental conditions. There is a small percentage of each species that can survive under less-than-ideal conditions despite being

physiologically stressed. Such organisms will more readily adapt to changing environmental conditions and

thus ensure the survival of the species. Often referred to as the Law of Tolerance, this relationship between population size and environmental condition is reflected in the following figure. This curve may also reflect

the relationship between, for example, numbers of predators and the prey population.

 

 

Revised: August 7, 2019 4

 

Idealized Range of Tolerance Curve

Step 3 – Design an appropriate test/experiment to assess the hypothesis/prediction

A well-designed experiment needs to have an independent variable and a dependent variable. The

independent variable is what the scientist manipulates in the experiment. The dependent variable

responds to the manipulation of the independent variable. Therefore, the dependent variable provides the data for the experiment. Said another way, the independent variable causes a response that is measured as

the dependent variable…. or…the independent variable may be considered as an action that results in a

reaction (dependent variable). Consider, for example, a fire alarm in a building. It is not until the alarm

rings that people will quickly evacuate the building. Therefore, it is the ringing of the alarm this is the independent variable that causes the dependent response of people quickly evacuating the building.

Variables that are held constant are called controlled variables. For example, if we wanted to test the

effects of varying the level of dissolved oxygen on the survival of fish, then we would maintain other

environmental factors (such as temperature, light, availability of food) constant to ensure that they were not affecting whether the fish survived.

A well-designed experiment should distinguish between the treatment (the experimental condition) and

the control (reference for comparison). All variables are held constant for the control. For the treatment,

only the independent variable is changed to determine the consequent outcome (dependent variable). The control is a source of reference and, since no variables are manipulated for the control, then no response or

change should be noted. If the control remains constant, then changes that result from the manipulation of

the independent variable for the treatment are attributed to the experimental factor.

If changes are noted in the control, then such changes are attributed to one or more confounding variables. The difficulty with confounding variables is that they are not readily identified before or during

the study and often leading to misinterpreted or incorrect results.

Step 4 – Conduct test/experiment, record and analyze the results

The data may be qualitative (a verbal description of observed outcomes of the experiment) or quantitative (involving the collection of numerical values that can be mathematically assessed or applied

to a statistical model). Observation must be thorough and impartial. But, be cautious to present your data

in a factual manner. Your interpretations, opinions and conclusions are NOT part of presenting and analyzing the results – they properly belong to Step 5.

Instruments used to collect data should be properly calibrated. Testing equipment and methods should be

consistent throughout the investigation. Multiple tests should be conducted on each test parameter, and the

existence of outliers (unusual values) should be noted. When outliers are observed, the testing methods

and equipment should be checked carefully for malfunctions and recording errors. Finally, all observations

 

 

Revised: August 7, 2019 5

must be noted in permanent written documentation so that it can be evaluated later and by others.

Sources of Error – To assess validity of scientific work, sources of error should be identified and evaluated. Common sources of error may result from measurements, testing procedures and human error.

Precision is a measure of the scatter, dispersion, or ability to replicate the measurements. Low-precision (high-scatter) measurements are referred to as noisy data. Smaller average difference between repeat

(replicate) measurements means higher precision. For example, if a sheet of paper is measured several

times with a ruler, we might get measurements such as 10.9, 11.0, 10.9, and 11.1 inches. If a micrometer is

used instead, we might get measurements such as 10.97, 10.96, 10.98, and 10.97 inches. These estimates show random variation regardless of the measuring device, but the micrometer gives a more precise

measurement than does the ruler. If the ruler or micrometer is poorly made, it may yield measurements

that are consistently offset, or systematically biased, from the true lengths. Accuracy is the extent to which the measurements are a reliable estimate of the ‘true’ value. Both random errors and systematic

biases reduce accuracy. To reduce errors of measurement, many measurements may be obtained and then

averaged to attempt to minimize bias and achieve accuracy.

A representative sample is a small subset of the overall population, exhibiting the same characteristics as

that overall population. It is also a prerequisite to valid statistical induction, or quantitative generalization. Representative sampling is essential for successful averaging of random errors and avoidance of

systematic errors, or bias. With random sampling, every specimen of the population should have an equal

chance of being included in the sample. There are standardized techniques for conducting random sampling to obtain a representative sample. Sometimes, however, random sampling is not feasible, and the

results may therefore not be consistent with the overall population and be free of bias.

Presenting and Analyzing Results — Modern science almost always employs a statistical analysis to

interpret data. Reference the Lab 1 background for guidance on selecting appropriate graphic method and mathematical analysis of the data. These interpretations are quantitative in nature and allow the scientist to

determine whether the experimental results indicate a consistent trend or condition.

Interpretations may also be qualitative in nature. For instance, a hypothesis predicted that there was fecal

coliform in a local stream and, after repeated testing, none was found. This could be qualitatively

interpreted that there is an insignificant amount of fecal coliform in the stream. This type of qualitative interpretation leaves room for errors in judgment.

Step 5 – Interpret the results and draw conclusions ➔ accept, revise, or reject the hypothesis

When statistical evaluation of experimental results is conducted, there will either be a statistical difference

between the tested subject and a control group (supports hypothesis HA) or there will be no difference

between the tested subject and the control group (supports null hypothesis H0). Lacking statistical

evaluation requires that the mathematical analysis and/or qualitative outcomes be interpreted to determine

whether the hypothesis is accepted, modified, or rejected.

For example, the determination of an insignificant amount of fecal coliform in a stream could be interpreted as the water is safe to drink. But would you feel safe drinking the stream water?

• Hypothesis Accepted – If the hypothesis is accepted, the student will write a formal report and

contribute this work to the existing scientific literature. The report will make it possible for other scientists (in this case, other students, or the instructor) to evaluate work for scientific soundness

and to repeat the experiment to verify the results. This process is known as peer review.

• Hypothesis Rejected – If the hypothesis is rejected, the student will write a formal report and

contribute this work to the existing scientific literature. Significant knowledge can be gained from ideas that fail. This makes it possible for the original researcher or other students to investigate the

same topic and to build upon the rejected hypothesis from the former investigation. Edison, for

example, did not invent the light bulb. Over a year and a half, Edison significantly improved upon a

fifty-year old idea. In creating an electric lighting system that contained all the elements necessary to make the incandescent light practical, safe, and economical for home use, Edison found 10,000 ways

that would not work.

 

 

Revised: August 7, 2019 6

Step 6 – Reporting the results

Results of scientific research must be shared to complete the cycle of the scientific method and stimulate

further thought, allow testing of the methods and results, and ensure the opportunity for potential development from hypothesis to corroborated hypothesis to scientific theory or perhaps even recognition

of a scientific fact or natural law. Several common methods of reporting are used:

◼ Formal memorandum

◼ Formal laboratory reports

◼ Peer reviewed scientific articles

 

Formal Memorandum

The standard reporting format for many state and federal agencies, as well as in industry, is a formal

memorandum. A longer report format is also common. The formal memorandum follows the following

format. Be sure to indicate the content of each section of the memo by using the respective labels (i.e.,

Label sections as: Background, Investigation, Conclusions and Recommendations).

MEMORANDUM

To: (indicate the name of the receiver – if an agency, also include formal title and agency

name)

From: (indicate your name)

Date: (date memorandum is being submitted)

Subject: (description of the content of the memo, for example: Analysis of fecal coliform content

of Turtle Creek, Dallas County, Texas)

Background: Concise paragraph (or more if needed) to outline:

◼ Where (reference map), when and why the study was conducted

◼ provide general background information on the study area

Investigation: Paragraphs factually outlining and presenting the following:

◼ what tests were conducted

◼ summarize the results and present in table and or graphic form – NOTE: these should be labeled appropriately and referenced in your summary

◼ uncertainties

Conclusions: Concise summary of your interpretations and conclusions, including whether there

is enough evidence to act.

Recommendation(s): Itemize and support your recommendations (for example, what action should be undertaken to respond to the situation or what further action may be

needed to develop enough evidence to support taking actions)

Attachment(s): A list of attached documents (e.g., figures, tables, graphs) that are attached in

order at the end of the memorandum – NOTE: all included figures, tables,

graphs or maps MUST be appropriately referenced and explained in the

document.

 

 

Revised: August 7, 2019 7

Formal Laboratory Reports

General Comments: Writing is one of the most important things you will do in the laboratory. All formal

laboratory reports must be typed and submitted in hard copy. Good communication is essential. Therefore, good grammar, correct spelling and word choice, as well as paragraph structure are necessary. Once you

have written your laboratory report, re-read and edit it to develop a well-written document. Make use of

the College Writing Lab to help you edit your written document and improve your writing skills.

Each of the following sections should be included in your report. Each section should begin with the name

of the section in ALL CAPS. You may review “Labwrite” as a resource to help you prepare, organize, interpret and write a formal laboratory report < http://labwrite.ncsu.edu/ >

1. TITLE – Choose a title that describes the hypothesis you are testing. You may want to use the independent variable and the dependent variable in your title (e.g., The Effects of Ozone on

Ultraviolet Radiation).

2. INTRODUCTION – Identify the phenomenon you studied/tested and provide relevant background information (e.g., why are you doing this experiment, what initial observations or

questions led to this line of research and to your specific experiment, what is the environmental

significance?) This discussion will likely include information from other

studies/documents/sources which must be properly referenced and cited.

3. HYPOTHESIS – State the hypothesis that your experiment was designed to test; the hypothesis should be specific, presenting the independent variable and the expected result in the dependent variable. For example: Precipitation with a pH of 3.6 will result in 20 percent lower rates of seed

germination of red maple (Acer rubrum). Presentation of the hypothesis may use the formal IF-

THEN hypothesis statement indicating the expected relationship between the dependent variable and the independent variable (e.g., If there is more ozone in the upper atmosphere, then less

ultraviolet light will reach the surface of the earth.). The hypothesis may reflect a predicted

ranking of results. For example, For brine shrimp exposed to increasing concentrations of three

chemicals, Chemical A will have the lowest LC-50 (most toxic), Chemical B will have the highest LC50 (least toxic), and Chemical C will have intermediate toxicity.

4. MATERIALS AND METHODS – Describe exactly how and when you conducted your experiment. Include enough detail on experimental design, experimental apparatus/equipment, methods of gathering and analyzing data, and types of experimental control so that someone

reading your report could accurately repeat your experiment. Steps should be discussed in

chronological order. Use diagrams or drawings if they would help the reader understand and replicate the experiment (see comments under 5. RESULTS for how to identify such illustrations).

Describe any materials or equipment you used, again with enough detail to enable someone to

repeat your experiment. This section should be written in past tense and active voice as work

completed (e.g., We filled each of three petri dishes with 20 ml of tap water.).

5. RESULTS – Report the results of your experiment. Present your observations / data with NO interpretations or conclusions about what they mean. You must have text in this section,

supported using tables, graphs and/or charts to aid in presenting the results. Include a discussion of uncertainties.

Be sure to make specific reference to all such tables, graphs, photographs, drawings, diagrams,

maps, etc. Also report the results of any statistical tests. All tables or other types of illustrations

should be numbered (in the order in which they are referenced in the text and should have an appropriate title. Tables are identified above the table. All other illustrations are referred to as

figures and are captioned beneath the illustration. This section should be written in past tense as

work completed.

Include in a table every data point you collected in your experiments, unless you collected

more than 100 data points. If there were more than 100 data points, you may save space and report

only the number of points and the relevant averages or means.

 

http://labwrite.ncsu.edu/

 

Revised: August 7, 2019 8

6. DISCUSSION – Explain what your data and results mean. Describe patterns and relationships that emerged. Explain how any changes to or problems with the experimental design/procedure may have affected the results. Consider the following questions: is it conclusive as a test of your

hypothesis? Discuss possible sources of error in your experiment? Does the experiment need to be

repeated before drawing conclusions about your hypothesis? How do your results compare with

the results of previous research on the same subject? What further questions do the results of your experiment raise? What experiment(s) should be done next?

7. CONCLUSION – Briefly summarize what you did, why you did it, and what happened. This should include a brief statement indicating whether your hypothesis was supported or not supported. If appropriate, propose a modified hypothesis.

8. LITERATURE CITED – Alphabetical list of books, publications, documents, or web sites you refer to that support statements you make in your report. In the body of the report, in-text

referencing to these sources is given by giving the author and year of publication within parentheses at the end of the sentence which includes the cited information.

• In the reference citations, for a website, be sure to give the COMPLETE URL for the webpage (do NOT just list the main website) from which you obtained your

information!!! DO NOT put the URL in the in-text reference. For example, the information that “17,694 generators produced 30 million tons of hazardous waste in the

United States” is derived from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency but it will NOT

be found at: http://www.epa.gov/ and this main EPA website should NOT be cited as the source. Rather, the statistic is found at: http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/osw/tsds.htm and

this is the complete URL that should be included in your reference citation.

Examples are provided below for the format you should use in the actual alphabetical list of all literature cited.

BOOK:

Junger, S. 1997. The Perfect Storm. HarperCollins, New York. 301pp. (list specific pages or a chapter if you

only used the book to refer to specific information on a few pages, eg., if we were listing this book only for its reference to the tragedy of the commons and the swordfish fishery, we might add “see p. 83-84”)

CHAPTER IN EDITED BOOK WITH DIFFERENT AUTHOR FOR EACH CHAPTER:

Miller, J.E. 1988. Effects on photosynthesis, carbon allocation, and plant growth associated with air pollutant

stress. Pages 287-316 in Heck, W.W., O.C. Taylor, and D.T. Tingey (eds.), Assessment of Crop Loss

from Air Pollutants. Elsevier Applied Science, New York. 552pp.

ARTICLE IN MAGAZINE OR JOURNAL:

DuBay, D.T. 1996. Work your plan, plan your work: North Carolina’s Environmental Education Plan. Friend

of Wildlife – The Journal of the North Carolina Wildlife Federation 44(3):10-11. (Summer 1996)

Ehrlich P.R., Murphy D.D., M. C. Singer, M.C., Sherwood, C.B., White, R.R. and Brown, I.L. 1980.

Extinction, reduction, stability and increase: The responses of checkerspot butterfly (Euphydryas) populations to the California drought. Oecologia 46(1): 101-105. (July 1980

INTERNET WEB SITE (Citations for Internet websites should be like print media citations, including

author or sponsoring agency, publication date, article title, site title, URL, the date the information was

posted, and the date when the web address was accessed to obtain the information.):

North Carolina State University. 2004. Labwrite for Students – Improving Lab Reports. Sponsored and

funded by National Science Foundation. http://labwrite.ncsu.edu/index.html

Plaisance, S. 2006. Wasps Released in Louisiana to Combat Bugs. Environmental News Network, Inc., San Francisco. < http://www.enn.com/today.html?id=11430 > posted October 12, 2006, accessed November

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