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A critical approach towards an integrative dynamic framework for understanding and managing organizational culture change

July 2, 2025/in Psychology Questions /by Besttutor

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UU-PSY704 – Organizational Culture Management

Assignment 1: Brief & Guidelines

 

 

A. Description

Type: Academic Essay

Essay title: “A critical approach towards an integrative dynamic framework for understanding and managing organizational culture change”

 

 

The emergence of organizational culture may not be fully understood based on the assumption that the dominant values of an influential group of employees is what drives the prevailing type of culture within an organization. In this module, the concept of cultural dynamics was introduced in order to describe the ongoing processes involved in the way in which a system of values is transformed into a stable type of organizational culture. An integrative dynamic framework was recommended as an effective means of managing culture change and organizational effectiveness.

 

In an academic essay format, identify the strengths and weaknesses of the recommended framework in terms of its capability to establish a new type of organizational culture. In your essay, you must focus on the following topics:

 

i. The dimensions of the concept of organizational culture which are relevant to the framework

ii. The contextual approach to organizational culture which appears to be most relevant to the framework

iii. An operational definition of organizational culture

iv. The role of the framework in helping us understand the relationship between culture and organizational performance and between culture and organizational culture management

v. The role of cultural dynamics and integrative cultural dynamics in organizational culture change

vi. The relationship between organizational culture change and organizational

effectiveness in the context of the integrative dynamic framework

vii. The role of transformational integrative leadership behaviour in enhancing organizational value

 

You are expected to follow faithfully the academic essay format, while utilising the APA

referencing system for your reference list. A minimum of 15 academic references must be used.

Furthermore, you are expected to support any arguments made with evidence from well-known

scientific journals or textbooks. It is preferable, yet optional, if you are able to collect some form of

data yourselves (primary data analysis). However, you are expected to utilise secondary data

provided in relevant research studies in such a way so to support key arguments and points raised in

your essay (secondary data analysis). This may involve either qualitative or quantitative data

 

 

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analysis or a combination of the two (mixed data analysis). Normally, qualitative data analysis and quantitative data analysis are presented and discussed in a different way. You should be mindful of properly treating available data.

It is important to note that, while you are developing arguments or clarifying points, case studies or practical examples of specific organizations may be used to support such arguments. However, you should ensure that this is publicly-disseminated information included in reports, credible websites or organizational documents, which must be fully and properly referenced.

 

Finally, you should aim to close your essay with clear policy recommendations associated with the ways in which modern organizations are capable of managing organizational culture change effectively. For this reason, you must discuss indicators/outcomes, such as “performance”, “productivity”, “effectiveness”, “organizational value”, etc.

 

Word Limit: 3000 words (absolute max word count: 3500)

Assessment task: Part I; 50% of the final module mark

Online Submission: End of week 4 (Sunday)

Time: By 11:59 p.m. (23:59 hours) UTC time at the latest.

 

Important Note: If you miss the deadline, UNICAF rules on late submission/non-submission will come into effect.

B. Learning outcomes

Description of learning outcomes assessed:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of the different contextual approaches to organizational

culture, i.e. sociological, anthropological and psychological approaches.

2. Demonstrate an understanding of the definition of the concept of organisational culture and its constituent elements, as well as the concept of organizational culture management.

3. Apply critical thinking in evaluating the role of culture in organizational life and, especially, in the way in which organizational culture influences vital organizational variables.

4. Critically describe and compare the different processes involved in cultural dynamics and organizational culture change.

5. Apply analytical and critical thinking in assessing the practical value of the recommended integrative dynamic framework for managing organizational culture change and organizational effectiveness.

6. Demonstrate an understanding of the role of leadership in organizational culture management in the context of the recommended integrative dynamic framework for organizational culture change.

 

 

Please note the learning outcomes assessed in this assignment corresponds to the learning outcomes (1) to (6) appeared in the “Module Specifications” document.

 

 

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C. Additional academic information

 

1. A complete and consistent reference list and proper in-text citation using the APA referencing system are compulsory. Accurate referencing of scientific sources used is crucial for an academic essay. Please make sure you are fully familiar with the APA referencing system. Marks will be deducted for inaccurate referencing.

2. Theoretical evidence based on well-known scientific research should drive any arguments you want to develop.

3. The requested maximum word count is an important guideline and must be

respected. This, essentially, means that you should train yourselves to write concisely and succinctly.

4. Your assignment should be word processed; Times New Romans, Font size 12, 1.5 line spacing and numbered pages (the ‘title’ page of your essay should be numbered but the numbering should be hidden).

5. You are expected to follow the formal academic format of preparing an essay. Please find all information you need about the widely-known academic format of essay writing before starting to prepare your essay. This consists of a number of sections including an introductory and closing sections (‘introduction’, ‘conclusions’). In the ‘introduction’, you should ‘set-the-scene’, i.e. present the primary aim of your essay, your objectives, the approach you will follow, the types of data you will utilise and, finally, briefly describe the content of the sections that follow. In the ‘conclusions’, you are expected to ‘connect- the-dots” between the different arguments developed in the essay, explain how your work addressed the primary aim and objectives of your essay in combination with the seven requested topics, i.e. points (i) to (vii) above and, finally, summarise the findings of your work. You are not expected to comment on how your work satisfies the set of ‘learning outcomes’, as described above, but if you feel this could improve the quality of your ‘conclusions’, you are free to do so. The overall number of sections depends solely on your approach and the material you aim to present. However, you are expected to briefly review relevant literature and address each and every point requested above. You are encouraged to use ‘sub-sections’, if you feel they will improve the structure of your essay. You have a degree of freedom in the way you want to title the sections in the main body of your essay, but you must ensure that there is a logical sequence in the presentation in order to strengthen readability. Your reference list should form the final section of your essay.

6. Please note that ‘tables’, ‘graphs’ and ‘diagrams’ are very helpful in an academic essay because they help improve comprehension. Those must be inserted within the main body of your essay, but they are not calculated in the final word count. The same stands for any ‘appendices’ you may want to use and the reference list. Please note, it is not appropriate to include important material in an appendix. Only additional analysis, more advanced evidence or further discussion may be used to form an appendix.

7. You are expected to submit your essay using the Sumbission Link located in the suitable

‘Assignment Point’ in the description of the weekly material. Your submission will take place via turnitin. Therefore, please make sure you are aware of plagiarism and academic

 

 

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misconduct regulations provided by UNICAF. Please note, you are responsible to ensure you are fully informed about such important regulations.

8. Finally, as part of your commitment to maintaining confidentiality, anonymity and privacy in any data utilised, it is important that you only use published data and information. You may use the actual name of an organization, if it has become known by the communication media or formal/informal publications. Please avoid using names of individuals, unless those names appear in the public sphere (for example, the name of an organisation’s CEO). If you aim to include primary data in your work, you must ensure that an informed consent is going to be obtained by all study participants and all ethics-related issues will be addressed and be properly reported within the essay.

 

D. Procedural information

• This is an individual assignment. It is not group work.

• Relevant literature refers only to valid, credible, widely-accepted academic literature based on scientific peer-reviewed journals, textbooks and monographs.

• The word count is 3000 words. There is always a degree of flexibility in the word count, which is up to +/- 10%. This means that a final word count of 2700 or 3300 words will be accepted. However, if you choose to utilize the maximum possible word count, i.e. 3500 words, there is no flexibility to go beyond that number.

• The marking of your assignment is anonymous. For this reason, please do not include your name on the assignment cover sheet; you may only use your student number for identification purposes.

• You are expected to be fully informed and familiarized with late submission and extension for late submission request procedures. Please familiarise yourselves with such regulations. Last minute accidents involving data loss, corrupted files, faulty laptops and so on can be avoided by backing up your work regularly.

• Please note that your tutor is not expected to pre-assess an early draft of your assignment. However, brief comments and feedback may be requested on short sections or if you need general guidance about the structure and overall presentation of your work.

• The feedback is expected to enable you to acknowledge mistakes and weak points, which may help you further develop your learning capability in the future.

 

 

 

 

E. Marking criteria

 

 

Assessment element Marking Weight

(%)

Presentation (General Presentation and APA referencing system) 10

Essay content, descriptive, analytical and critical analysis, brief

review of the literature, satisfaction of main aim and objectives, as well as learning outcomes. 50

 

Essay structure and organization, information synthesis, coherence

of arguments and consistency of information/evidence presented. 30

Formal language for academic writing, clarity, accuracy,

information synthesis and punctuation 10

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Autism quiz T or F

July 2, 2025/in Psychology Questions /by Besttutor

Please answer the following True and False questions and justify your answer (1 paragraph PER question)

1. Autism is more often diagnosed in boys than in girls? _____

2. Autism can be caused by emotional deprivation. _____

3. Autism is on the increase. _____

4. Autism has the same rate of occurrence worldwide _____

5. Autism can be detected before a child is 2 years old _____

6. Autism runs in families ____

7. There is a single gene for autism ____

8. Autism can be caused by the MMR vaccine _____

9. A person with autism can grow out of it _____

10. People with autism all have below average intelligence _____

11. People with autism always prefer being alone _____

12. Adults with autism are not capable of working _____

13. People with autism can’t feel emotions ____

14. People with autism do not easily understand that other people are thinking _____

15. All people with autism display deficits in communication _____

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SOCW-6210-6351-W6-Discussion

July 2, 2025/in Psychology Questions /by Besttutor

DISCUSSION 1:

 

The Aging Process

 

As individuals grow older, they experience biological changes, but how they experience these changes varies considerably. Senescence, or the process of aging, “affects different people, and various parts of the body, at different rates” (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2016, p. 658).

 

What factors affect the aging process? Why do some individuals appear to age faster than others? In this Discussion you address these questions and consider how, you, as a social worker, might apply your understanding of the aging process to your work with older clients.

 

To prepare for this Discussion, read “Working With the Aging: The Case of Francine” in Social Work Case Studies: Foundation Year.

 

Post a Discussion in which you:

 

o   Apply your understanding of the aging process to Francine’s case. How might Francine’s environment have influenced her aging process? How might you, as Francine’s social worker, apply your knowledge of the aging process to her case?

 

o   Identify an additional strategy you might use to apply your knowledge of the aging process to social work practice with older clients in general. Explain why you would use the strategy.

 

 

Be sure to support your posts with specific references to the resources. If you are using additional articles, be sure to provide full APA-formatted citations for your references

 

References

 

Plummer, S. -B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. M. (Eds.). (2014). Social work case studies: Foundation year. Baltimore, MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing. [Vital Source e-reader].

 

Zastrow, C. H., & Kirst-Ashman, K. K. (2016). Understanding human behavior and the social environment (10th ed.). Boston, MA:  Cengage Learning.

 

 

 

Working With the Aging: The Case of Francine

Francine is a 70-year-old, Irish Catholic female. She worked for 40 years as a librarian in an institution of higher education and retired at age 65. Francine has lived alone for the past year, after her partner, Joan, died of cancer. Joan and Francine had been together for 30 years, and while Francine personally identifies as a lesbian, she never came out to her family or to her colleagues. When speaking to all but her closest confidantes, Francine referred to Joan as her “best friend” or her “roommate.” Francine’s bereavement was therefore complicated because she did not feel she could discuss the true nature of her partnership with Joan. She felt that there was little recognition from her family, and even some of her close associates, of the impact and meaning of Joan’s death to Francine. There is a history of alcohol abuse in Francine’s family, and Francine abused alcohol from late adolescence into her mid-30s. However, Francine has been in recovery for several decades. Francine has no known sexual abuse history and no criminal history.

Francine sought counseling with me for several reasons, including an ongoing depressed mood, a lack of pleasure or enjoyment in her life, and loneliness and isolation since Joan’s death. She also reported that she had begun to drink again and that while her drinking was not yet at the level it had been earlier in her life, she was concerned that she could return to a dependence upon alcohol. Francine came to counseling with several considerable strengths, including a capacity to form intimate relationships, a successful work history, a history of having maintained her sobriety in the past for many years, as well as insight into the factors that had contributed to her current difficulties.

During our initial meetings, Francine stated that her goals were to feel less depressed, to reduce or stop drinking, and to feel less isolated. In order to ensure that no medical issues were contributing to her depression symptoms, I referred Francine to her primary care physician for an evaluation. Francine’s physician did not find any medical cause of her symptoms, diagnosing Francine with moderate clinical depression and recommending that Francine begin a course of antidepressant medication. Francine was reluctant to take medication and first wanted to try a course of counseling.

In order to help Francine meet her goal of reducing her depression symptoms, I employed a technique called behavioral activation (BA), which is drawn from principles of cognitive behavioral therapy and helps to reengage people in pleasant physical, social, and recreational activities. We began with a small initial goal of having Francine dedicate at least 5 minutes of each day to an activity she found pleasant or rewarding. Over the following weeks, we increased the time. Francine’s treatment progress was monitored through weekly completion of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) in order to determine whether or not her depressive symptoms were improving.

I helped Francine address her drinking by reconnecting her with effective coping strategies she had used in the past to achieve and maintain her sobriety. These included identifying triggers for the urge to drink and exploring her motivations for both continuing to drink and for stopping her use of alcohol. Francine began attending regular meetings of Alcoholics Anonymous™ (AA) and found several meetings that were specifically for older women and for lesbians. In addition, Francine spoke regularly with a sponsor who helped her to remain abstinent during particularly stressful moments during her reengagement in sobriety.

Finally, in order to address Francine’s goal of feeling less lonely and isolated, we explored potential avenues to increase her social networks. In addition to spending time with her family, friends, and her AA sponsor, Francine began to visit the local lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT), center for the first time in her life and attended a support group for women who had lost their partners. Francine also began spending time at her local senior center and went there at least three times a week for exercise classes, other recreational activities, and lunch. She also began to do volunteer work at her local library once a week.

Over several months of counseling, Francine stopped drinking; significantly increased her daily involvement in pleasant and rewarding activities, including social and recreational activities; and reported feeling less lonely, despite still missing her partner a great deal. Francine’s scores on the PHQ-9 gradually decreased over time, and after 16 weeks of counseling, Francine reported that she no longer felt she needed the session to move on with her life. In addition, Francine visited her primary care physician, who found upon evaluation that her depression had lifted considerably and that an antidepressant was no longer indicated. By the end of counseling, Francine’s focused work on identifying her depression symptoms and her triggers for drinking equipped her to better recognize when she might need support in the future and to whom she could reach out for help if she needed it.

 

 

 

 

 

Discussion 2: Mental Health Care

 

Mental health care is a primary concern to social workers, who are the main providers of care to populations with mental health diagnoses. The system that provides services to individuals with mental health issues is often criticized for being reactive and only responding when individuals are in crisis. Crisis response is not designed to provide on-going care and is frequently very expensive, especially if hospitalization is involved.

 

Critics suggest a comprehensive plan, which involves preventive services, as well as a continuum of care. However, there are few, if any, effective and efficient program models. Social work expertise and input are vital to implementing effective services. Targeting services to individuals with a diagnosis of mental illness is one strategy. Another approach includes providing an array of services that are also preventative in nature. How might these suggestions address potential policy gaps in caring for individuals such as the family members in the Parker Family case?

 

For this Discussion, review this week’s resources, including the Parker Family video. Then consider the specific challenges or gaps in caring for individuals with a chronic mental illness might present for the mental health system based on the Parker case. Finally, think about how environmental stressors, such as poverty, can aggravate mental illness and make treatment more challenging.

 

·      Post an explanation of the specific challenges or gaps in the mental health care system for the care of individuals with chronic mental illnesses.

 

·      Base your response on the Parker case.

 

·      Then, describe how environmental stressors, such as poverty, can aggravate mental illness and make treatment more challenging.

 

Support your post with specific references to the resources. Be sure to provide full APA citations for your references.

 

 

References

 

Popple, P. R., & Leighninger, L. (2015). The policy-based profession: An introduction to social welfare policy analysis for social workers. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

World Health Organization. (2004). Mental health policy and service guidance package: Mental health policy, plans and programmes. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mental_health/policy/en/policy_plans_revision.pdf

 

Plummer, S. -B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. (Eds.). (2014). Sessions: Case histories. Baltimore: MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing. [Vital Source e-reader].

 

 

Parker Family Episode 5 Program Transcript

 

COUNSELOR: So you’ve been hospitalized, let’s see, four times altogether.

 

FEMALE CLIENT: Well actually, I should have only been in the hospital three times.

 

COUNSELOR: Why do you say that?

 

FEMALE SPEAKER: Well, on the third hospital visit they kicked me out before I was ready to leave. They said I was just in there to get away from my mom, but I told them they were wrong. My sister even backed me up on this. But they didn’t care. They just checked me out, and home sweet home I went. I was barely gone like a month and I was back in their monkey house. So technically, for me, hospital visits three and four are the same. I remember going back to that hospital seeing the same docs and nurses, and I just smiled and waved and said, see, I told you so. I mean, we picked up right where we left off.

 

COUNSELOR: What do you mean your sister backed you up?

 

FEMALE CLIENT: Jane, that’s my sister. Jane, she knew how crazy my mom is, so she took pictures of all that mess and all that junk my mom hoards, and she showed them to the social worker in the hospital.

 

COUNSELOR: What happened?

 

FEMALE CLIENT: You know what the social worker said? She said that there was nothing that she can do about it, that her job was to only make sure that patients have a place to go when they leave the hospital. Translation, when you’re out the door, good riddance and good luck. Some policy, huh?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Discussion 3: Emerging Issues in Mental Health Care

 

Like so many areas of practice in social work, mental health is dynamic and ever-evolving. Research continues to provide new information about how the brain functions, the role of genetics in mental health, and evidence to support new possibilities for treatment. Keeping up with these developments might seem impossible. However, being aware of and responsive to these developments and incorporating them into both your practice and social policy is essential to changing the lives of individuals and families who live with a mental health diagnosis and the impact it brings to their daily lives.

 

For this Discussion, review this week’s resources. Search the Library and other reputable online sources for emerging issues in the mental health care arena. Think about the issues that are being addressed by social policy and those that are in need of policy advocacy and why that might be the case. Then, consider what social workers can do to ensure that clients/populations receive necessary mental health services. Also, think about the ethical responsibility related to mental health care social workers must uphold in host settings when they encounter conflicts in administration and home values. Finally, search your state government sites for the mental health commitment standards in your state and reflect on the mental health services covered under your state’s Medicaid program.

 

·      Post an explanation of those emerging issues in the mental health care arena that the policymakers address and those that are in need of policy advocacy and why.

 

·      Then, explain what strategies social workers might use to ensure that clients/populations receive necessary mental health services.

 

·      Finally, explain the mental health commitment standards and mental health services in your state. In your explanation, refer to the services covered under your state’s Medicaid program.

 

Support your post with specific references to the resources. Be sure to provide full APA citations for your references.

 

References

 

Popple, P. R., & Leighninger, L. (2015). The policy-based profession: An introduction to social welfare policy analysis for social workers. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

World Health Organization. (2004). Mental health policy and service guidance package: Mental health policy, plans and programmes. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mental_health/policy/en/policy_plans_revision.pdf

 

Plummer, S. -B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. (Eds.). (2014). Sessions: Case histories. Baltimore: MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing. [Vital Source e-reader].

 

 

Mental Health America. (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2013, from www.mentalhealthamerica.net

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Case study APA Code of Ethics Outline

July 2, 2025/in Psychology Questions /by Besttutor

Okay here is my case study

 

Case Study 10-53: Zena Freeman is a contention between a student and her male teacher (Dr. Macho Mann ) Organizational Psychology course. She goes to her teacher requesting help understanding specific organizational psychology research ideas. Educator Macho Mann remarks his student that women don’t have a place in the course since they are not suited for the field and exclusively decline to answer her questions, yet he kept on criticizing her and the female sex overall. He went ahead about how women are inadmissible for function in the business world and utilized her issues understanding specific ideas as his proof to help this. A way to deal with breaking down this case study would be analyzing why a renowned teacher wants to disparage his student looking for his assistance and clarifying which ethical and moral violations he has supported.

Ethical Conflict was::

 

The main ethical conflict includes the standard of “Human Relations” and the guideline of “Regard for People’s Rights and Dignity.” The standard of human relations incorporates sexual harassment, unfair discrimination, exploitative relationships, and avoiding harm. These were available for Zena’s case. Zena was subjected to unfair discrimination exclusively because she is a girl. She was likewise subjected to a type of sexual harassment. Although there were no immediate sexual references or inappropriate touching, she is sexually harassed by Macho Mann’s attempt to keep her in a subordinate position by exclusion and ridicule (Koocher, 2016). The Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity is described as respecting the dignity and worth of all people, their right to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination. Be aware of, and respect cultural and role differences, and don’t willingly participate or condone activities of others based on prejudices (“Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct.”, 2017).

INSTRUCTIONS FOR HOMEWORK

in this milestone, apply the APA Code of Ethics to your chosen case study vignette and expand the outline of your final case study analysis paper you began in Milestone Two.

The APA Code of Ethics Principles a. Identify and define all five principles b. Highlight, bold, or summarize all that might apply to your case study vignette’s ethical conflict c. Justify why highlighted or bolded principles apply to your case study vignette’s ethical conflict 6. The APA Code of Ethics Standards a. List and define all ten standards b. Highlight, bold, or summarize all that might apply to your case study vignette’s ethical conflict c. Justify why highlighted or bolded standards apply to your case study vignette’s ethical conflict 7. Statement of Culture and Social Orientations in the Case Study

I posted a sample code of ethic outline paper below

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I already started some of the question

July 2, 2025/in Psychology Questions /by Besttutor

Item Development and Analysis Worksheet

 

 

 

 

 

Student Name:                                                                        Section:   PSYC421-

 

 

 

 

 

PART 1: Writing Multiple Choice Test Items

 

 

 

Develop one multiple choice question that covers content from each of the four chapters listed below.  When writing your sample questions, please keep in mind the specifications regarding item construction discussed in the textbook.  Also, remember the importance of carefully crafted distractor options.  Finally, please limit the number of response options to 4 (1 correct response and 3 distractors), and avoid the options of “all of the above,” none of the above,” or the like.  Be sure to indicate which of the response options is the correct one.

 

 

 

Chapter 3 Multiple Choice Question (2.5 points)

 

An estimate of the relaibility of a speed test is a measure of ?

 

 

 

A) the consistancy of flood

 

B) the consistancy of response

 

C) the consistancy of the response speed

 

D) the consistancy of the response of intensity

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4 Multiple Choice Question (2.5 points)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 5 Multiple Choice Question (2.5 points)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 6 Multiple Choice Question (2.5 points)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PART 2: Item Analysis: Item Difficulty Index(Cohen et al., 2013, pg. 263)

 

 

 

A test is only as good as its questions!  When researchers, test constructors, and educators create items for ability or achievement tests, we have a responsibility to evaluate the items and make sure that they are useful and high-quality.  The process that we use to evaluate test items is known as Item Analysis.  When bad items are identified and eliminated from a test, that increases the efficiency, reliability and validity of the entire test!    One way that we can distinguish among good and bad items is with the Item Difficulty Index.

 

 

 

Part 2A: Calculating Item Difficulty

 

 

 

Using the data below, calculate the Item Difficulty Index for the first 6 items onQuiz 1 from a recent section of PSYC101.  For each item, “1” means the item was answered correctly and “0” means it was answered incorrectly. Type your answers in the spaces provided at the bottom of the table. (1 pt. each)

 

PSYC101 Quiz 1 Item Distribution and Total Scores
Examinee Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Total Score
Andre 1 1 1 1 1 1 16
Allison 1 1 1 1 0 0 7
Heather 1 1 1 1 0 0 10
Corey 1 1 0 1 1 1 17
Christina 0 0 1 1 0 1 3
Jeffrey 0 1 1 1 0 0 11
Shawn 1 1 1 1 0 1 14
Dana 0 0 1 1 0 1 10
Megan 1 1 1 1 0 1 13
David 0 1 1 1 0 1 12
Isabel 0 0 0 1 0 0 4
Lance 1 1 1 1 0 0 9
Aliyah 1 1 1 1 0 1 15
Blaire 0 1 1 1 0 1 12
Gabriel 0 0 1 1 0 0 6
Item
Difficulty
53.333 73.333 86.667 100 13.333 60  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Part 2B: Calculating Optimal Item Difficulty (.5 pt. each)

 

 

 

1.      For a test item with two response options (e.g., true/false), what is the probability of selecting the correct answer by chance?

 

%

 

 

 

2.      Calculate the optimum level of difficulty for a test questions with two response options.

 

%

 

 

 

3.      For a test item with three response options, what is the probability of selecting the correct answer by chance?

 

%

 

 

 

4.      Calculate the optimum level of difficulty for a test questions with three response options.

 

%

 

 

 

5.      For a test item with four response options, what is the probability of selecting the correct answer by chance?

 

%

 

 

 

6.      Calculate the optimum level of difficulty for a test questions with four response options.

 

%

 

 

 

7.      For a test item with five response options, what is the probability of selecting the correct answer by chance?

 

%

 

 

 

8.      Calculate the optimum level of difficulty for a test questions with five response options.

 

%

 

 

 

 

 

PART 3: Item Analysis: Item Discrimination Index(Cohen et al., 2013, pg. 265–266)

 

 

 

Another way that test creators can distinguish between good and bad items is with an analysis called the Discrimination Index.  The discrimination index measures how well an individual test item distinguishes between high scorers and low scores on the test.  An item is considered to be “good” if most of the high scorers get it right, and most of the low scorers get it wrong.

 

 

 

Interpreting the Discrimination Index (d)

 

·         The discrimination index can range from -1.0 to 1.0.

 

·         The closer d is to 1.0, the better the item discriminates between high and low scorers

 

·         The closer d is to 0, the more poorly the item discriminates between high and low scorers.

 

·         An item with a negative discrimination index is considered a “negative discriminator” because more low scorers get the item correct than high scorers.

 

·         A discrimination index of 1.0 means all the high scorers got the item correct and all of the low scorers got it incorrect.

 

·         A discrimination index of -1.0 means all of the low scorers got the item correct and all of the high scorers got it incorrect.

 

·         Items with d’s close to 0 or with negative d’s ought to be eliminated from the test!

 

Calculating the Item Discrimination Index (d)

 

 

 

Calculate the item discrimination index (d) for the 7 hypothetical test items presented below.  Type your answers in the spaces provided at the right of the table (1 pt. each).

 

 

 

Item # U L n d
Item 1 21 17 25  
Item 2 23 7 25  
Item 3 25 0 25  
Item 4 3 24 25  
Item 5 22 3 25  
Item 6 0 25 25  
Item 7 19 6 25  

 

 

 

 

 

Based on your calculations above, answer the following questions (1 pt. each).

 

 

 

1.      Which item discriminates the best?

 

 

 

2.      Which item discriminates most poorly?

 

 

 

3.      Based on your analysis, identify which two items would you choose to eliminate from this test and explain why you would eliminate each.

 

 

 

 

 

Part 4: Item Characteristic Curves (Cohen et al., pg. 268–270)

 

 

 

Another method that test creators can use to assess the usefulness of test items is with Item Characteristic Curves.  Item characteristic curves provide a graphical depiction of examinees’ performance on individual test items.  As indicated in the figure below, Total Test Score is plotted on the x-axis of the curve, while proportion of examinees who got the item correct is plotted on the y-axis

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Using the figure above, provide a written description of how test items A–D discriminate among examinees at various levels of performance.  In your responses, discuss why each item would be considered a “good” or a “bad” item.  EXAMPLE: “This item discriminates well among high scores, but doesn’t discriminate well among low scorers.  So this item would be considered a good item because it discriminates at the highest levels of performance.” (2 pt. each)

 

 

 

Item A:

 

 

 

Item B:

 

 

 

Item C:

 

 

 

Item D:

 

 

 

Item E:

 

 

 

 

 

Part 5: Qualitative Item Analysis (Cohen et al., pg. 272–274)

 

 

 

Qualitative item analysis refers to a set of non-statistical procedures used to gather information about the usefulness of test items.  These analyses typically involve interviews, panel discussions, questionnaires and other forms of verbal exchange with test-takers to explore how individual test items work.

 

 

 

As an online student, you have a very different test-taking experience than residential students.  Based on your readings from Chapter 8, identify 4 topics related to online test taking, and create 4 qualitative questions that you could ask online test-takers to gain an understanding of their experiences with test-taking.  Also, as students at a Christian institution of higher education, course assignments/assessments are supposed to give students an opportunity to integrate course content with their Christian worldview.  Given the topic of faith and learning, create one qualitative question that you could ask test-takers.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Qualitative Item Analysis
Topic (1 pt. each) Sample Question for Test-Takers (1 pt. each)
 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Assignment Scoring

 

 

 

Part 1 Subtotal:

 

 

 

Part 2 Subtotal:

 

 

 

Part 3 Subtotal:

 

 

 

Part 4 Subtotal:

 

 

 

Part 5 Subtotal:

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Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

PSYCH/610 Version 2

1

Qualitative vs. Quantitative ResearchUse the table below to answer the following:· Define and distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research.· Provide examples of qualitative and quantitative research.· Imagine that you are a researcher interested in identifying the components of ‘giftedness’ in pre-teen children. What quantitative methods might you use to help you better understand the experience of giftedness? What qualitative methods might you use?· What are the advantages and disadvantages of each approach?

 

Definition

Examples

Examples of methods to study ‘giftedness’

Advantages

Disadvantages

Quantitative

Research

 

 

 

 

 

Qualitative

Research

 

 

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CHAPTER 14 Generalization

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

· Discuss the issues created by generalizing research results to other populations, including potential problems using college students as research participants.

· Discuss issues to consider regarding generalization of research results to other cultures and ethnic groups.

· Describe the potential problem of generalizing to other experimenters and suggest possible solutions.

· Discuss the importance of replications, distinguishing between exact replications and conceptual replications.

· Distinguish between narrative literature reviews and meta-analyses.

Page 292IN THIS CHAPTER, WE WILL CONSIDER THE ISSUE OF GENERALIZATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS. When a single study is conducted with a particular sample and procedure, can the results then be generalized to other populations of research participants, or to other ways of manipulating or measuring the variables? Recall from  Chapter 4  that internal validity refers to the ability to infer that there is a causal relationship between variables. External validity is the extent to which findings may be generalized.

GENERALIZING TO OTHER POPULATIONS

Even though a researcher may randomly assign participants to experimental conditions, rarely are participants randomly selected from the general population. As we noted in  Chapters 7  and  9 , the individuals who participate in psychological research are usually selected because they are available, and the most available population consists of college students—or more specifically, first- and second-year students enrolled in the introductory psychology course to satisfy a general education requirement. They may also be from a particular college or university, may be volunteers, or may be mostly males or mostly females. So, are our research findings limited to these types of subjects, or can we generalize our findings to a more general population? After considering these issues, we will examine the larger issue of culture and how research findings can be generalized to different cultural groups.

College Students

Smart (1966) found that college students were studied in over 70% of the articles published between 1962 and 1964 in the Journal of Experimental Psychology and the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Sears (1986) reported similar percentages in 1980 and 1985 in a variety of social psychology journals; Arnett (2008) found that 67% of the articles in the 2007 volume of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology used college student samples. The potential problem is that such studies use a highly restricted population. Sears points out that most of the students are first-year students and sophomores taking the introductory psychology class. They therefore tend to be young and to possess the characteristics of emerging adults: a sense of self-identity that is still developing, social and political attitudes that are in a state of flux, a high need for peer approval, and unstable peer relationships. They are intelligent with high cognitive abilities. Thus, what we know about “people in general” may actually be limited to a highly select and unusual group. Indeed, Peterson (2001) found that students, as a group, are more homogenous than nonstudent samples. That is, students are more similar to each other than adults are similar to other adults in the general population.

Research by Henry (2008) illustrates how the use of college students may affect the external validity of research on prejudice. In his sample of articles Page 293from 1990 to 2005, an increasing percentage of studies used college students as participants. Further, in looking at the actual results of studies on prejudice that compared college students with adults, he reported a variety of differences among adults and college students. For example, college students were less conservative and rated women and ethnic minorities more favorably.

Volunteers

Researchers usually must ask people to volunteer to participate in their research. At many colleges, introductory psychology students are required either to volunteer for research or to complete an alternative project. If you are studying populations other than college students, you are even more dependent on volunteers—for example, asking people at a homeowners’ association meeting to participate in a study of marital interaction or conducting research on the Internet in which people must go to your web page and then agree to participate in the study, or conducting a telephone survey of county residents to determine health care needs. In all these cases, external validity of the findings may be limited because the data from volunteers may be different from what would be obtained with a more general sample. Some research indicates that volunteers differ in various ways from nonvolunteers. In their comprehensive study on the topic, Rosenthal and Rosnow (1975) reported that volunteers tend to be more highly educated, of a higher socioeconomic status, more in need of approval, and more social.

Further, different kinds of people volunteer for different kinds of experiments. In colleges, there may be a sign-up board with the titles of many studies listed or a web page that manages research participants and volunteer opportunities for the university. Different types of people may be drawn to the study titled “problem solving” than to the one titled “interaction in small groups.” Available evidence indicates that the title does influence who signs up (Hood & Back, 1971; Silverman & Margulis, 1973).

Online Research

Another important consideration arises when asking participants to volunteer for online surveys and experiments. Researchers can find potential participants through online survey design services. Psychologists are increasingly using Amazon Mechanical Turk ( https://www.mturk.com ; Jacquet, 2011), a website for recruiting people to work on many types of tasks including participating in research for a specified payment. This sort of sampling strategy has important implications for external validity. While the online sample is more diverse than the typical college student sample, there are still generalization issues because Internet users represent a unique demographic. The Pew Research Center’s Internet and American Life Project (Pew Internet, 2010) found that living in an urban/suburban area, being college educated, being younger, and having a higher income are all related to reporting more time online. Thus, by asking Page 294for volunteers for an online survey, researchers are sampling from a particular demographic that may not generalize well to the population of interest.

Gender

Sometimes, researchers use only males or only females (or a very disproportionate ratio of males to females) simply because this is convenient or the procedures seem better suited to a particular gender. Given the possible differences between males and females, however, the results of such studies may not be generalizable (Denmark, Russo, Frieze, & Sechzer, 1988). Denmark et al. provide an example of studies on contraception practices that use only females because of stereotypical assumptions that only females are responsible for contraception. They also point out several other ways that gender bias may arise in psychological research, including confounding gender with age or job status and selecting response measures that are gender-stereotyped. The solution is to be aware of possible gender differences and include both males and females in our research investigations. Moreover, it is important to recognize the ways that males and females might differentially interpret independent variable manipulations or questions asked in a questionnaire.

Locale

The location that participants are recruited from can also have an impact on a study’s external validity. Participants in one locale may differ from participants in another locale. For example, students at UCLA may differ from students at a nearby state university, who in turn may differ from students at a community college. People in Iowa may differ from people in New York City. Thus, a finding obtained with the students in one type of educational setting or in one geographic region may not generalize to people in other settings or regions. In fact, studies have explored how personality traits like extraversion (the tendency to seek social stimulation) and openness to new experiences vary across geographic areas. Rentfrow, Gosling, and Potter (2008) looked at geographic differences in personality traits among citizens of various U.S. states and found extraversion to vary by state. People in midwestern states tended to be more extraverted than people in northeastern states, and people in western states tended to be more open to new experiences. Thus, a study conducted in one location may not generalize well to another, particularly if the variables in question are related to location in some way.

Culture

Whether theories and research findings generalize across cultures is a critically important issue. Some observers of current psychological research have been very critical of the types of samples employed in behavioral research. Based on analyses of published research by Arnett (2008) and others, Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan (2010) contend that psychology is built on the study of WEIRD Page 295(Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) people. In many cases, research samples consist primarily of college students from the United States, other English-speaking countries, and Europe. Ultimately, researchers wish to discover aspects of human behavior that have universal applications but in fact cannot generalize beyond their limited samples. This is, at its heart, a critique of the external validity of behavioral research: Does our human behavioral research generalize to all humans, or is it really a study of the WEIRD?

Clearly, if psychologists want to understand human behavior, they must understand human behavior across and among cultures (Henrich et al., 2010; Miller, 1999). Miller described research on self-concept by Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto, and Norasakkunkit (1997) to illustrate the benefits of incorporating culture into psychological theory. Traditional theories of self-concept are grounded in the culture of the United States and Western Europe; the “self” is an individualistic concept where people are independent from others and self-enhancement comes from individual achievements. Kitayama and his colleagues take a broader, cultural perspective: In contrast to the U.S. meaning of self, in other cultures the “self” is a collective concept in which self-esteem is derived from relationships with others. Often, Japanese engage in self-criticism, which can be seen as relationship-maintaining, whereas Americans work to maintain and enhance self-esteem—thus, very different activities contribute to a positive self-concept in the two cultures (Kitayama et al., 1997). This is a very common theme in research that incorporates culture in psychological processes: “The significance of self-esteem, however, may be much more specific to a culture than has typically been supposed in the literature” (p. 1262).

Much of this cultural research centers on identifying similarities and differences that may exist in personality and other psychological characteristics, as well as ways that individuals from different cultures respond to the same environments (Matsumoto, 1994). Research by Kim, Sherman, and Taylor (2008) provides another example of the limits of external validity across cultural groups. This research focused on how people from different cultures use social support to cope with stress. In reviewing the research on the topic, they concluded that Asians and Asian Americans might benefit from different styles of social support as compared with European Americans. For example, Asian Americans are more likely to benefit from support that does not involve the sort of intense disclosure of personal stressful events and feelings that is the hallmark of support in many European American groups. Rather, they suggest that Asians and Asian Americans may benefit more from support that comes with the comforts of proximity (being with close friends) rather than sharing.

These examples all focused on differences among cultures. Many studies also find similarities across cultures. Evolutionary psychologists, for instance, often conduct studies in different cultural groups because they are looking for similarities across cultures in order to see if a particular behavior or attitude can be tied to our evolutionary past. For example, Singh, Dixson, Jessop, Morgan, and Dixson (2010) wanted to see if a particular aspect of beauty that is tied to greater reproductive success—namely waist-to-hip ratio (e.g., the ratio for Page 296a 25-inch waist and 35-inch hips is .71), which is related to sex hormones and thus fertility—would be seen as attractive across cultures. Diverse groups from Africa, Samoa, Indonesia, and New Zealand evaluated photographs of females with small and large waist-to-hip ratios. The researchers found that indeed, low waist-to-hip ratio among females was seen as more attractive across all these groups. In this example, the results obtained in one culture do generalize to other cultures.

Nonhuman Animals

We noted in  Chapter 3  that about 7% of psychological research is conducted with nonhuman animals. Almost all of this research is done with rats, mice, and birds. Most research with other species is conducted to study the behavior of those animals directly to gather information that may help with the survival of endangered species and increase our understanding of our bonds with nonhuman animals such as dogs, cats, and horses ( http://www.apa-hai.org/human-animal-interaction ).

The basic research that psychologists conduct with nonhuman animals is usually done with the expectation that the findings can be generalized to humans. This research is important because the research problems that are addressed require procedures such as long-term observation that could not be done with human samples. We do expect that we can generalize as our underlying biological and behavioral patterns are shared. In fact, the value of studying nonhuman animals has been demonstrated by research that does apply to humans. These applications include the biological bases of memory, food preferences, sexual behavior, choice behavior, and drug addictions. The American Psychological Association has prepared a brochure on animal research: ( http://www.apa.org/research/responsible/research-animals.pdf ).

In Defense of College Students

It is easy to criticize research on the basis of subject characteristics, yet criticism by itself does not mean that results cannot be generalized. Although we need to be concerned about the potential problems of generalizing from unique populations such as college students (cf. Sears, 1986), we should also keep several things in mind when thinking about this issue. First, criticisms of the use of any particular type of subject, such as college students, in a study should be backed with good reasons that a relationship would not be found with other types of subjects. College students, after all, arehuman, and researchers should not be blamed for not worrying about generalization to a particular type of subject if there is no good reason to do so. Moreover, college student bodies are increasingly diverse and increasingly representative of the society as a whole (although college students will always be characterized as having the ability and motivation to pursue a college degree). Second, replication of research studies provides a safeguard against the limited external validity of a single study. Studies are replicated at other colleges using different mixes of students, and Page 297many findings first established with college students are later applied to other populations, such as children, aging adults, and people in other countries. It is also worth noting that Internet samples are increasingly used in many types of studies. Although such studies raise their own issues of external validity, they frequently complement studies based on college student samples.

GENERALIZING ACROSS METHODS

The person who actually conducts the experiment is the source of another external validity problem. In most research, only one experimenter is used, and rarely is much attention paid to the personal characteristics of the experimenter (McGuigan, 1963). The main goal is to make sure that any influence the experimenter has on subjects is constant throughout the experiment. There is always the possibility, however, that the results are generalizable only to certain types of experimenters.

Some of the important characteristics of experimenters have been discussed by Kintz and his colleagues (Kintz, Delprato, Mettee, Persons, & Schappe, 1965). These include the experimenter’s personality and gender and the amount of practice in the role of experimenter. A warm, friendly experimenter will almost certainly produce different results from a cold, unfriendly experimenter. Participants also may behave differently with male and female experimenters. It has even been shown that rabbits learn faster when trained by experienced experimenters (Brogden, 1962)! The influence of the experimenter may depend as well on the characteristics of the participants. For example, participants seem to perform better when tested by an experimenter of the other sex (Stevenson & Allen, 1964).

One solution to the problem of generalizing to other experimenters is to use two or more experimenters. A fine example of the use of multiple experimenters is a study by Rubin (1975), who sent several male and female experimenters to the Boston airport to investigate self-disclosure. The experimenters revealed different kinds of information about themselves to both male and female travelers and recorded the passengers’ self-disclosures in return. One interesting result was that women tended to reveal more about themselves to male experimenters, and men tended to reveal more about themselves to female experimenters.

Pretests and Generalization

Researchers are often faced with the decision of whether to give a pretest. Intuitively, pretesting seems to be a good idea. The researcher can be sure that the groups are equivalent on the pretest, and it is often more satisfying to see that individuals changed their scores than it is to look only at group means on a posttest. A pretest also enables the researcher to assess mortality (attrition) effects when it is likely that some participants will withdraw from an experiment. Page 298If you give a pretest, you can determine whether the people who withdrew are different from those who completed the study.

Pretesting, however, may limit the ability to generalize to populations that did not receive a pretest. (cf. Lana, 1969). Simply taking the pretest may cause subjects to behave differently than they would without the pretest. Recall from  Chapter 8  that a Solomon four-group design (Solomon, 1949) can be used in situations in which a pretest is desirable but there is concern over the possible impact of taking the pretest. In the Solomon four-group design, half of the participants are given the pretest; the other half receive the posttest only. That is, the same experiment is conducted with and without the pretest. Mortality effects can be assessed in the pretest conditions. Also, the researcher can examine whether there is an interaction between the independent variable and the pretest: Are posttest scores on the dependent variable different depending on whether the pretest was given? Sometimes, researchers find that it is not feasible to conduct the study with all four groups in a single experiment. In this case, the first study can include the pretest; the study can be replicated later without the pretest.

Generalizing from Laboratory Settings

Research conducted in a laboratory setting has the advantage of allowing the experimenter to study the impact of independent variables under highly controlled conditions. The internal validity of the research is the primary consideration. The question arises, however, as to whether the artificiality of the laboratory setting limits the ability to generalize what is observed in the laboratory to real-life settings.

Mook (1983) articulated one response to the artificiality issue: Generalization to real-life settings is not relevant when the purpose of the study was to investigate causal relationships under carefully controlled conditions. Mook is concerned that a “knee-jerk” criticism of laboratory research on the basis of external validity is too common. Good research is what is most important.

Another response to the laboratory artificiality criticism is to examine the results of field experiments. Recall from  Chapter 4  that in a field experiment, the researcher manipulates the independent variable in a natural setting—a factory, a school, or a street corner, for example.

Anderson, Lindsay, and Bushman (1999) asked whether laboratory and field experiments that examine the same variables do in fact produce the same results. To answer this question, they found 38 pairs of studies for which a laboratory investigation had a field experiment counterpart. The studies were drawn from a variety of research areas including aggression, helping, memory, leadership style, and depression. Results of the laboratory and field experiments were in fact very similar—the effect size of the independent variable on the dependent variable was very similar in the two types of studies. Thus, even though lab and field experiments are conducted in different settings, the results Page 299are complementary rather than contradictory. When findings are replicated using multiple methods, our confidence in the external validity of the findings increases.

SUPPORTING GOOD EXTERNAL VALIDITY

It may seem as if no research can possibly be generalizable! In some ways, this is true. Furthermore, it can be very difficult to understand the extent to which a study is generalizable; external validity is an aspect of a study that we try to assess, but cannot truly know. How, then, can we support good external validity? There are a few ways that external validity can be supported.

The key way that external validity can be supported is related to a study’s methodology. Using a census, or a random sample will always produce better external validity than using a nonrandom sample. This, of course, is not always possible. Next, we will explore a few other ways in which external validity can be supported.

Generalization as a Statistical Interaction

The problem of generalization can be thought of as an interaction in a factorial design (see  Chapter 10 ). An interaction occurs when a relationship between variables exists under one condition but not another or when the nature of the relationship is different in one condition than in another. Thus, if you question the generalizability of a study that used only males, you are suggesting that there is an interaction between gender and the independent variable. Suppose, for example, that a study examines the relationship between crowding and aggression among males and reports that crowding is associated with higher levels of aggression. You might then question whether the results are generalizable to females.

Figure 14.1  shows four potential outcomes of a hypothetical study on crowding and aggression that tested both males and females. In each graph, the relationship between crowding and aggression for males has been maintained. In Graph A, there is no interaction—the behavior of males and females is virtually identical. Thus, the results of the original all-male study could be generalized to females. In Graph B, there is also no interaction; the effect of crowding is identical for males and females. However, in this graph, males are more aggressive than females. Although such a difference is interesting, it is not a factor in generalization because the overall relationship between crowding and aggression is present for both males and females.

Graphs C and D do show interactions. In both, the original results with males cannot be generalized to females. In Graph C, there is no relationship between crowding and aggression for females. In Graph D, the interaction tells us that a positive relationship between crowding and aggression exists for males but that a negative relationship exists for females. As it turns out, Graph D describes the results of several studies on this topic (cf. Freedman, Levy, Buchanan, & Price, 1972).

Page 300

 

FIGURE 14.1

Outcomes of a hypothetical experiment on crowding and aggression

Note: The presence of an interaction indicates that the results for males cannot be generalized to females.

Researchers can address issues of external validity that stem from the use of different populations by including subject type as a variable in the study. By including variables such as gender, age, or ethnic group in the design of the study, the results may be analyzed to determine whether there are interaction effects like the ones illustrated in  Figure 14.1 .

The Importance of Replications

Replication of research is a way of overcoming any problems of generalization that occur in a single study. There are two types of replications to consider: exact replications and conceptual replications.

Exact replications An exact replication is an attempt to replicate precisely the procedures of a study to see whether the same results are obtained. A researcher who obtains an unexpected finding will frequently attempt Page 301a replication to make sure that the finding is reliable. If you are starting your own work on a problem, you may try to replicate a crucial study to make sure that you understand the procedures and can obtain the same results. Often, exact replications occur when a researcher builds on the findings of a prior study. For example, suppose you are intrigued by Singh et al.’s (2010) research on waist-to-hip ratio that was mentioned previously. Singh reports that males rate females with a ratio of .70 as most attractive. In your research, you might replicate the procedures used in the original study and expand on the original research. For example, you might study this phenomenon with males similar to those in the original sample as well as males from different cultures or age groups. When you replicate the original research findings using very similar procedures, your confidence in the external validity of the original findings is increased.

The “Mozart effect” provides us with an interesting example of the importance of replications. In the original study by Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993), college students listened to 10 minutes of a Mozart sonata. These students then showed better performance on a spatial-reasoning measure drawn from the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale than students exposed to a relaxation tape or simple silence. This finding received a great deal of attention in the press as people quickly generalized it to the possibility of increasing children’s intelligence with Mozart sonatas. In fact, one state governor began producing Mozart CDs to distribute in maternity wards, and entrepreneurs began selling Mozart kits to parents over the Internet. Over the next few years, however, there were many failures to replicate the Mozart effect (see Steele, Bass, & Crook, 1999). We noted above that failures to replicate may occur because the exact conditions for producing the effect were not used. In this case, Rauscher and Shaw (1998) responded to the many replication failures by precisely describing the conditions necessary to produce the Mozart effect. However, Steele et al. (1999) and McCutcheon (2000) were unable to obtain the effect even though they followed the recommendations of Rauscher and Shaw. Research on the Mozart effect continues. Some recent findings suggest that the effect is limited to music that also increases arousal; it is this arousal that can cause better performance following exposure to the music (Thompson, Schellenberg, & Husain, 2001). Bangerter and Heath (2004) present a detailed analysis of the development of the research on the Mozart effect.

A single failure to replicate does not reveal much, though; it is unrealistic to assume, on the basis of a single failure to replicate, that the previous research is necessarily invalid. Failures to replicate share the same problems as nonsignificant results, discussed in  Chapter 13 . A failure to replicate could mean that the original results are invalid, but it could also mean that the replication attempt was flawed. For example, if the replication is based on the procedure as reported in a journal article, it is possible that the article omitted an important aspect of the procedure. For this reason, it is usually a good idea to write to the researcher to obtain detailed information on all of the materials that were used in the study.

Page 302Several scientific societies are encouraging systematic replications of important scientific findings. The journal Perspectives on Psychological Science (published by the Association for Psychological Science) is sponsoring the publication of Registered Research Replications ( http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/replication ). Multiple groups of researchers will undertake replications of important studies using procedures that are made public before initiating the research. When completed, all of the replications will be described in a single report. In addition to the Psychological Science initiative, the online journal PLOS ONE (Public Library of Science) has developed the Reproducibility Initiative to encourage independent replication of research in the clinical sciences (Pattinson, 2012). Such developments should lead to greater understanding of the generalizability of research findings.

Conceptual replications A conceptual replication is the use of different procedures to replicate a research finding. In a conceptual replication, researchers attempt to understand the relationships among abstract conceptual variables by using new, or different, operational definitions of those variables. Conceptual replications are even more important than exact replications in furthering our understanding of behavior.

In most research, a key goal is to discover whether a relationship between conceptual variables exists. In the original Mozart effect study, researchers examined the effect of exposure to classical music on spatial reasoning. These are conceptual variables; in the actual study, specific operational definitions of the variables were used. Exposure to classical music was operationalized as 10 minutes of exposure to the Mozart Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major. Spatial reasoning was operationalized as performance on a particular spatial reasoning measure.

In a conceptual replication, the same independent variable is operationalized in a different way, and the dependent variable may be measured in a different way, too. Conceptual replications are extremely important in the social sciences because the variables used are complex and can be operationalized in different ways. Complete understanding of any variable involves studying the variable using a variety of operational definitions. A crucial generalization question is whether the relationship holds when other ways of manipulating or measuring the variables are studied. Sometimes the conceptual replication may involve an alternative stimulus (e.g., a different Mozart sonata, a selection by a different composer) or an alternative dependent measure (e.g., a different spatial-reasoning task). Or as we previously noted, the same variables are sometimes studied in both laboratory and field settings. When conceptual replications produce similar results, our confidence in the generalizability of relationships between variables is greatly increased.

This discussion should also alert you to an important way of thinking about research findings. The findings represent relationships between conceptual variables but are grounded in specific operations. You may read about the specific methods employed in a study conducted 20 years ago and question Page 303whether the study could be replicated today. You might also speculate that the methods used in a study are so unusual that they could never generalize to other situations. These concerns are not as serious when placed within the context of conceptual replications because, although operational definitions can change over time, the underlying conceptual variable often remains more consistent. Admittedly, a specific method from a study conducted at one time might not be effective today, given changes in today’s political and cultural climate. A conceptual replication of the manipulation, however, would demonstrate that the relationship between the conceptual theoretical variables is still present. Similarly, the narrow focus of a particular study is less problematic if the general finding is replicated with different procedures.

Evaluating Generalizations via Literature Reviews and Meta-analyses

Researchers have traditionally drawn conclusions about the external validity of research findings by conducting literature reviews. In a literature review, a reviewer reads a number of studies that address a particular topic and then writes a paper that summarizes and evaluates the literature. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association provides the following description: “Literature reviews, including research syntheses and meta-analyses, are critical evaluations of material that has already been published.… By organizing, integrating, and evaluating previously published material, authors of literature reviews consider the progress of research toward clarifying a problem” (APA, 2010, p. 10). The literature review provides information that (1) summarizes what has been found, (2) tells the reader which findings are strongly supported and which are only weakly supported in the literature, (3) points out inconsistent findings and areas in which research is lacking, and (4) discusses future directions for research.

Sometimes a review will be a narrative in which the author provides descriptions of research findings and draws conclusions about the literature. The conclusions in a narrative literature review are based on the subjective impressions of the reviewer. Another technique for comparing a large number of studies in an area is meta-analysis (Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins, & Rothstein, 2009). In a meta-analysis, the researcher combines the actual results of a number of studies. The analysis consists of a set of statistical procedures that employ effect sizes to compare a given finding across many different studies. Instead of relying on judgments obtained in a narrative literature review, you can draw statistical conclusions from this material. The statistical procedures need not concern you. They involve examining several features of the results of studies, including the effect sizes and significance levels obtained. The important point here is that meta-analysis is a method for determining the reliability of a finding by examining the results from many different studies.

Stewart and Chambless (2009) conducted a meta-analysis of research on the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety disorders. Page 304Both a traditional literature review and a meta-analysis begin with a body of previous research on a topic; in this case, Stewart and Chambless located 56 studies using CBT with adults diagnosed with an anxiety disorder (including panic disorder, social anxiety, post traumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder). Studies that included an additional medication treatment were excluded. The researchers performed a statistical analysis of the results of these studies and concluded that CBT was effective in treating all of the types of anxiety disorders. In a traditional literature review, it can be difficult to provide the type of general conclusion that was reached with the meta-analysis because it is necessary to integrate information from many studies with different experimental designs, disorders, and measures of anxiety.

One of the most important reasons a meta-analysis can lead to clear conclusions is that meta-analysis studies focus on effect size (recall that an effect size represents the extent to which two variables are associated, see  page 256 ). A typical table in a meta-analysis will show the effect size obtained in a number of studies along with a summary of the average effect size across the studies. More important, the analysis allows comparisons of the effect sizes in different types of studies to allow tests of hypotheses. For example, Miller and Downey (1999) analyzed the results of 71 studies that examined the relationship between weight and self-esteem.  Table 14.1  shows a few of the findings. The effect size r averaged across all studies was −.18: Heavier weight is associated with lower self-esteem. However, several variables moderate the relationship between weight and self-esteem. Thus, the effect size is larger when the weight variable is a report of self-perceived rather than actual weight, and the relationship between weight and self-esteem is somewhat larger for females than for males. Finally, the effect is greater among individuals with a high socioeconomic background.

TABLE 14.1 Some meta-analysis findings for weight and self-esteem

 

Page 305Both narrative reviews and meta-analyses provide valuable information and in fact are often complementary. A meta-analysis allows statistical, quantitative conclusions whereas a narrative review identifies trends in the literature and directions for future study—a more qualitative approach. A study by Bushman and Wells (2001) points to an interesting way in which knowledge of meta-analysis can improve the way that we interpret information for literature reviews.

The reviewers in their study were undergraduates who were provided with both titles and information about the findings of 20 studies dealing with the effect of attitude similarity on attraction. Sometimes the titles were salient with respect to the findings (“Birds of a Feather Flock Together”) and others were nonsalient (“Research Studies Who Likes Whom”). Salient titles are obviously easier to remember. When asked to draw conclusions about the findings, naive reviewers with no knowledge of meta-analysis overestimated the size of the similarity–attraction relationship when provided with salient titles. Other reviewers were given brief training in meta-analysis; these reviewers drew accurate conclusions about the actual findings. That is, they were not influenced by the article title. Thus, even without conducting a meta-analysis, a background in meta-analysis can be beneficial when reviewing research findings.

USING RESEARCH TO IMPROVE LIVES

In a presidential address to the American Psychological Association, George Miller (1969) discussed “psychology as a means of promoting human welfare” and spoke of “giving psychology away.” Miller was addressing the broadest issue of generalization, taking what we know about human behavior and allowing it to be applied by many people in all areas of everyday life. Zimbardo’s (2004) presidential address to the American Psychological Association described many ways in which Miller’s call to give psychology away is being honored. The impact of psychological research can be seen in areas such as health (programs to promote health-related behaviors related to stress, heart disease, and sexually transmitted diseases), law and criminal justice (providing data on the effects of 6- versus 12-person juries and showing how law enforcement personnel can improve the accuracy of eyewitness identification), education (providing methods for encouraging academic performance or reducing conflict among different ethnic groups), and work environments (providing workers with more control and improving the ways that people interact with computers and other machines in the workplace). In addition, psychologists are using the Internet to provide the public with information on parenting, education, mental health, and Page 306many other topics—for example, the websites of the American Psychological Association and the Association for Psychological Science ( http://www.apa.org ;  http://www.psychologicalscience.org ), national mental health resource websites ( http://www.mentalhealth.gov/  and  http://www.samhsa.gov/ ), and many individual psychologists who are sharing their expertise with the public.

We have discussed only a few of the ways that basic research has been applied to improve people’s lives. Despite all the potential problems of generalizing research findings that were highlighted in this chapter, the evidence suggests that we can generalize our findings to many aspects of our lives.

ILLUSTRATIVE ARTICLE: GENERALIZING RESULTS

Driving around in a 4,000-pound automobile is a dangerous thing. Motor vehicle accidents are among the leading preventable causes of death in the United States every year. Distraction is one of the most common causes of automobile accidents, and talking to another person is a very common distraction.

In an effort to observe the impact of conversation on driving, Drews, Pasupathi, and Strayer (2008) conducted a study using a driving simulator that tracks errors committed by drivers. The researchers varied the type of conversation. In one condition, participants had a conversation with a passenger; in another condition, participants talked on a cell phone. There was also a no conversation, control condition. As you would expect, having any conversation resulted in more driving errors. However, the number of driving errors was highest in the cell phone condition.

For this exercise, acquire and read the article:

Drews, F., Pasupathi, M., & Strayer, D. (2008). Passenger and cell phone conversations in simulated driving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 14, 392–400. doi:10.1037/a0013119

After reading the article, consider the following:

1. Describe how well you think the sample of participants in this study generalizes to other groups of people. What about age? What about sex?

2. In this study, participants were told to have a conversation about a time when “their lives were threatened.” Do you think that the results of this study would be different if the conversation were about something else? How so? Why?

3. Do you think that the findings from this study would generalize to other cultures? Do you think that a sample of college students in Mexico, Italy, and Germany would generate similar results? Why or why not?

4. How well do you think the driving simulator generalizes to real-world driving? What would you change to improve the generalizability of the simulator?Page 307

5. Evaluate the internal validity of this study. Explain your answer.

6. Evaluate the external validity of this study. Explain your answer.

Study Terms

Conceptual replication ( p. 302 )

Exact replication ( p. 300 )

External validity ( p. 292 )

Literature review ( p. 303 )

Meta-analysis ( p. 303 )

Replication ( p. 300 )

Solomon four-group design ( p. 298 )

Review Questions

1. What is external validity?

2. Why should a researcher be concerned about generalizing to other populations?

3. How can the fact that most studies are conducted with college students, volunteers, and individuals from a limited location and culture potentially impact external validity?

4. How does the use of the Internet to recruit subjects and collect data impact external validity?

5. What is the source of the problem of generalizing to other experimenters? How can this problem be solved?

6. Why is it important to pretest a problem for generalization? Discuss the reasons why including a pretest may affect the ability to generalize results.

7. Distinguish between an exact replication and a conceptual replication. What is the value of a conceptual replication?

8. What is a meta-analysis?

Activities

1. It is easy to collect data for experiments and surveys on the Internet. Anyone in the world who is connected to the Internet can participate in an online experiment or survey. Use a search term such as “psychological research on the Internet” to find some studies that are being conducted. Page 308What issues of generalization might arise when interpreting the results of such studies? Does the computer aspect of the research make this research less generalizable than traditional research, or does the fact that people throughout the world can participate make it more generalizable? Could you empirically answer this question?

2. Use PsycINFO to find abstracts of articles that included race, ethnicity, gender, or nationality as a key variable. Consider topics such as body image, rumination, academic achievement, or identity development. What conclusions do the authors of these studies draw about generalization?

3. Find a meta-analysis published in a journal; two good sources are the Review of Educational Research and Psychological Bulletin. What conclusions were drawn from the meta-analysis? How were studies selected for the analysis? How was the concept of effect size discussed in the meta-analysis?

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Philosophy

July 2, 2025/in Psychology Questions /by Besttutor

Unit 3 Study Questions

Chapter 7

1. Nietzsche announces the death of God in a parable about

a. A madman holding a lantern

b. A lonely prophet walking the earth

c. Jesus

d. A desert hermit living in a cave

2. The madman’s proclamation that “God is dead” refers to the fact that

a. He has found incontrovertible proof that God never really existed in the first place

b. God has temporarily withdrawn Himself from the world, only to return at the end of time

c. People have ceased to believe in God

d. None of the above

3. The madman finds the death of God to be so terrifying because

a. All of his contemporaries are grief-stricken at the sudden disappearance of God, and do not know how to recover from this frightening piece of news

b. Without God human life is devoid of any intrinsic purpose, value, and meaning

c. Both A and B

d. None of the above

4. Shakespeare’s Macbeth says that life “is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing.” This would be an example of

a. Theism

b. Virtue ethics

c. Hedonism

d. Nihilism

5. “Life itself is essentially appropriation, injury, conquest of the strange and weak, suppression, severity…and at the least…exploitation.” Nietzsche here refers explicitly to

(HINT: see page 86, 89, paragraph 3!)

a. The Will to Power

b. Slave Morality

c. Judeo-Christianity

d. The German people

6. Each of the following is a characteristic of an aristocratic society EXCEPT:

(HINT: see pages 88-90!)

a. They come into being through conquest

b. Master Morality

c. They are the embodiment of will-to-power

d. They champion full equality among all members of society

7. Master morality is to slave morality as

(HINT: see pages 86-88, 90-91!)

a. nobility is to baseness

b. higher is to lower

c. affirmation of life is to negation of life

d. All of the above

8. The “good” of master morality is to the “good” of slave morality as

a. Noble is to despicable

b. Mediocrity is to excellence

c. Despicable is to noble

d. Rare is to exceptional

9. The “evil” of slave morality is to the “bad” of master morality as

a. cowardly is to heroic

b. lover is to beloved

c. self-glorification is to resentment

d. mediocrity is to excellence

10. The “good” of master morality is to the “evil” of slave morality as

a. resentment is to honor

b. hero is to coward

c. base is to noble

d. They are one and the same thing

11. According to Nietzsche, the modern liberal democratic ideal

a. encourages slavishness

b. is the only honorable value to be found in Judeo-Christianity

c. is embraced by master morality

d. is shunned by slave morality

12. Nihilism is the belief that

a. God is Good

b. Nothingness is an illusion of the mind

c. If we remain ignorant we will annihilate ourselves

d. The world is utterly meaningless

13. According to Nietzsche, the slavish individual expresses _________ for the noble types.

a. admiration

b. resentment

c. a feeling of kinship

d. affection

14. According to Nietzsche, slave morality originates from

(HINT: see page 87, 91!)

a. a feeling of superiority

b. the need for slaves to survive

c. economic inequality

d. faith in a higher power

15. According to Nietzsche, master morality originates from

a. the aristocratic man’s spontaneous self-glorification

b. resentment toward other aristocratic men

c. the need to combat low self-esteem

d. a will to the denial of life

Chapter 8

1. Ortega can best be described as

a. a nihilist

b. an elitist

c. a feminist

d. an egalitarian

2. According to Ortega, the masses have begun to insinuate themselves in each of the following areas EXCEPT:

a. politics

b. education

c. the priesthood

d. the arts

3. According to Ortega, the phenomenon of the “masses” as a concentrated group gaining power and influence in all sectors of society

a. is nothing new

b. is consistent with the rise of fascism in Spain

c. is a recent phenomenon

d. is a cause for great celebration

4. Each of the following is true about the mass man EXCEPT:

a. he is the “average” man

b. he belongs exclusively to the working class

c. he is comfortable in his mediocrity

d. he is not particularly ambitious

5. Each of the following is true about the “select individual” EXCEPT:

a. he snobbishly believes that he is simply superior to everyone else

b. he sets very high standards for himself

c. he assigns himself great tasks

d. his presence is not limited to any particular socio-economic stratum of society

6. The select individual is to the mass man

a. as higher is to lower

b. as rare is to common

c. as noble is to vulgar

d. all of the above

7. Before the advent of the “crowd phenomenon,” artistic, political, and intellectual enterprises were directed by

(HINT: see page 101, paragraph 10!)

a. anybody who wanted to take part

b. only those who were select individuals

c. only those who were qualified or at least claimed to be qualified

d. all of the above

8. According to Ortega, hyperdemocracy

a. is a threat to liberal democracy

b. is the mass man’s way of imposing itself on the rest of society

c. is the mass man’s way of stifling human excellence

d. all of the above

9. Each of the following is a characteristic of the “select individual” EXCEPT:

a. judges himself against a high standard.

b. complacency

c. qualified for intellectual, aesthetic, and political endeavors

d. runs the risk of being crushed under the weight of the mass

Chapter 9

1. Sartre’s phrase “existence precedes essence” means that

(HINT: see pages 107-108!)

a. God created man as a “blank slate” on which he can make his own essence.

b. Man created God in his own image

c. Man first has an essence, and then he confers on himself existence

d. Man exists in a godless universe, without any determinate nature or essence: he creates his own essence through his actions.

2. According to Sartre, when you choose how to live, you are choosing

(HINT: see pages 108-110!)

a. for your loved ones

b. for all mankind

c. for nobody but oneself

d. none of the above

3. In Sartre’s view, the existentialist finds the fact that God does not exist

(HINT: see pages 110-111!)

a. deeply distressing

b. liberating

c. insignificant

d. absurd to the point of being comical

4. Sartre argues that when he speaks of anguish, he is referring to

a. the feeling of having been abandoned by God

b. the fact that we are not responsible for our actions

c. man’s feeling of total and deep responsibility for all mankind

d. all of the above

5. According to Sartre, each human being is the sum total of his/her

a. hopes

b. actions

c. beliefs

d. ambitions

6. Sartre argues that when he speaks of forlornness, he means that

a. We are not responsible for our actions

b. We can never truly understand human nature

c. God does not exist, so we must face all of the consequences of this

d. all of the above.

7. Sartre criticizes certain atheists in the 1880s that wanted to create an atheist ethics on the grounds that

a. without God, there can be no a priori standard of good to which everyone is bound to conform.

b. there can be no salvation without embracing our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ

c. atheists are generally very immoral people

d. none of the above

8. Sartre argues that when he speaks of despair, he means that

(HINT: see pages 112-113!)

a. when one chooses, one chooses for oneself only

b. one should reckon only with what depends on our will

c. life is a tale told by an idiot

d. all of the above

9. According to Sartre, the value of one’s feeling is determined by

(HINT: see page 111!)

a. the way one feels

b. what one believes

c. the way one acts

d. all of the above

10. Each of the following is true for Sartre EXCEPT:

a. You are the sum total of your hopes and dreams

b. Responsibility for one’s actions involves being responsible for everyone

c. Man’s situation is characterized by anguish, forlornness, and despair

d. We are “condemned to be free”

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05994 – 2 pages within 6hrs

July 2, 2025/in Psychology Questions /by Besttutor

05994 Topic: Discussion 2

Number of Pages: 2 (Double Spaced)

Number of sources: 1

Writing Style: APA

Type of document: Essay

Academic Level:Master

Category: Psychology

Language Style: English (U.S.)

Order Instructions: Attached

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1. Meeting and diagnosing the guests of an imagined party (10 points) chapters 9-12

July 2, 2025/in Psychology Questions /by Besttutor

Meet and Diagnose:

2. The invitation contains a description and picture of each guest.

3. Each guest has some type of personality disorder (must be a personality disorder). 

4. Read over the descriptions carefully as your task is to try and diagnose each guest. chapters 9-12

5. After reading the material, SEE ATTACHED WORD DOC called “party guest diagnosis.”

6. Fill out your diagnosis sheet and submit the completed form

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