Typically, programs for children with EBD focus on replacing maladaptive with adaptive behaviors, increasing self-regulation, building appropriate academic skills and dispositions, increasing self-awareness, increasing cooperative behavior, and acquiring age-appropriate self-control (Lane, Kalberg, & Menzies, 2009). Children need these skills and behaviors to succeed in their classrooms, homes, and communities.
In the past, many programs for children with EBD were restrictive, controlling, and puni- tive in nature. Rather than teaching new behaviors, these programs focused on controlling the behaviors of children and youth. These programs employed the curriculum of control (Knitzer, Steinberg, & Fleisch, 1990) or the curriculum of noninstruction (Shores & Wehby, 1999, p. 196). Rather than developing replacement behaviors or new behaviors, children and youth in many of these programs languished or regressed. Even today, many children and youth with behavior disorders are served in settings that remove them from natural interactions with students without disabilities. Some of these programs are boot camp–like in nature (Jeter, 2010). Most young people with EBD have friends that are neighborhood- based rather than school-centered—just the opposite of young people without disabilities.
Collaboration: Wraparound Services New systems of care for children and adolescents with EBD have emerged (Eber & Keenan, 2004; Eber, Hyde, & Suter, 2011). As mentioned earlier, these systems deliver wraparound services to children and youth with EBD and their families (Eber et al., 2008) (see Reflect on This, “Henry: Wraparound”). As is im- plied by the word wraparound, children, youth, and their families receive the support they need to address the problems uncovered through carefully conducted assessments. Prelimi- nary research regarding the provision of these services is very positive for youth with complex and challenging EBD. Results include successfully living at home, positive emotional and be- havioral growth, reduced recidivism rates for delinquent-related behaviors, and better perfor- mance at school as evidenced in improved attendance and grades (Eber, Hyde, & Suter, 2011).
Services may include in-home child management training, employment assistance, and family therapy—whatever is needed to help families become successful. Figure 8.6 reveals essential phases of wraparound systems and related programs.
Again, at the heart of many new programs is positive behavioral support (PBS). Instead of trying to exclusively control behaviors, teachers, parents, and clinicians collaborate, working together to build new replacement behaviors—behaviors that are highly regarded and especially functional in school, home, and community settings.
As highlighted in the assessment section of this chapter, professionals use functional be- havioral assessment to determine the patterns and functions of certain behaviors. Once these patterns and functions are well understood, teachers, parents, and others help children and youth with EBD develop new behaviors, grow academically, achieve worthwhile goals, and learn how to deal with their thoughts and feelings in positive ways (Beard & Sugai, 2004).
Children who exhibit moderate to severe EBD may be served in special classes (see Re- flect on This, “Henry: Wraparound”). In some school systems, special classes are found in elementary, middle, and high schools. They may be grouped in small clusters of two to three classes in selected buildings. Other special classes may be found within hospital units, spe- cial schools, residential programs, juvenile units, and other specialized treatment facilities.
Most special classes for children with moderate to severe disorders share certain char- acteristics. The first is a high degree of structure and specialized instruction. In other words, rules are clear and consistently enforced; helpful routines are in place; high-quality academic and social instruction are provided; and both adult–child relationships and child– child relationships are fostered and developed (Kauffman, Bantz, & McCullough, 2002; Rorie et al., 2011). Other features include close teacher monitoring of student performance, frequent feedback, and reinforcement based on students’ academic and social behaviors. Students learn how to express themselves, how to address individual and group problems, and how to deal effectively with very strong feelings and emotions. Often, point systems or token economies are used, although some concerns have been raised about these systems. These systems provide students with a specific number of points or tokens when they main- tain certain behaviors or achieve certain goals. The points can be exchanged for various rewards, such as treats, school supplies, or activities that students enjoy. Furthermore, all members of special classes are well informed about behavioral and academic expectations
Curriculum of control Classroom routines, structures, and instructional strategies focused on controlling children rather than teaching them success-related behaviors.
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8 – 6 I N T E R V E N T I O N S A N D T R E AT M E N T S F O R E M O T I O N A L / B E H AV I O R A L D I S O R D E R S 201
8-6d Adolescent Education and Transition to Adulthood Individually and collectively, adolescents with EBD pose significant challenges for parents, teachers, and other care providers. These problems include violent exchanges with parents and others, delinquency, school refusal, bullying, fighting, withdrawal, substance abuse, and other difficult behaviors. In the past, interventions and programs for adolescents with EBD, like those created for elementary children, were often punitive, controlling, and negative.
Systems of Care Fortunately, perspectives and practices are changing. Professionals in education, medicine, social work, and mental health are developing systems of care. Again, these systems of care are characterized by family-friendly, multidisciplinary collabo- rations (Kendziora et al., 2001; Woodruff et al., 1999). Ideally, the care is community-based, family-driven, individualized, based on strengths rather than weaknesses, sensitive to di- versity, and team-based. In these systems, the knowledge and views of parents and family members are taken very seriously. Parents and key providers help design, shape, and assess interventions and transition programs (Sitlington & Neubert, 2004). If a family needs parent training, family therapy, and employment assistance, the agencies and school work together to provide these services. If the youth needs services beyond those typically delivered in a school, they are secured.
Another approach that is beginning to gather momentum is individualized care (IC). IC is also linked to the wraparound approach (WRAP). As you recall, WRAP focuses on improving the outcomes for children and adolescents with EBD through coordinated, flexible approaches to integrated, family-centered care. Rather than being provided to students in school settings or at a mental health agency exclusively, these services are delivered to children and adolescents, their parents, and families where they are needed— frequently in their homes. Henry’s case provides powerful examples of IC and WRAP in action (see Reflect on This, “Henry: Wraparound”).
Increasingly, mental health professionals are readying young people with EBD for ad- ditional education, employment, and fuller participation in our neighborhoods and com- munities (Benitez, Lattimore, & Wehmeyer, 2005). With recent advances in psychotropic medications and other innovative interventions, entry into meaningful schooling and employment for youth with behavior disorders is now a greater reality. Features associated with successful programs include program locations that are unique and separate from adult program sites, a focus on strengths and assets of each respective youth, access to a range of transitional housing options, and individually tailored, youth-friendly interven- tions (Woolsey & Katz-Leavey, 2008).
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Standard 4 Assessment
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
Standard 7 Collaboration
Standard 7 Collaboration
Individualized care (IC) Improving the outcomes for children and adolescents with EBD through coordinated, flexible approaches to integrated, family- centered care.
SymTrend ADL Activities for Daily Living
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
website is an affordable subscription program that allows users to share reports with teachers, therapists, and other interveners. Users also have ac- cess to a blog to stay current with in- formation and suggestions (SymTrend ADL, 2012).
SymTrend ADL is a mobile app that tracks behavior data for activities of daily living, such as eating, dressing, toileting, and more. The program also lets parents and caregivers track health, medication, and therapy data. The mobile data syncs to a website that provides suggested strategies based on the child’s progress and pro- duces charts and reports that let the user determine the success of strat- egies and other interventions. The Ea
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C H A P T E R 8 E M O T I O N A L / B E H A V I O R A L D I S O R D E R S202
Looking Toward a Bright Future As we anticipate the future for children and youth with EBD and their families, there is room for optimism. This optimism is centered in having professionals and others actively apply evidence-based practices—practices that are supported by rigorous research. Also, the movement to family-sensitive and family-responsive interventions is a step in the right direction. Listening to families, focusing on their assets and strengths, and giving families the support they need to nurture and connect with their children in healthy and productive ways are causes for hope and positive anticipation.
Systems of care—often delivered in the form of wraparound programs—are being em- braced by communities, schools, and other mental health agencies. These systems give rise to new ways of thinking about and responding to children and youth with EBD. Rather than a deficit orientation, these programs focus on the strengths, possibilities, and assets of children and youth, their families, and their communities. Also, these systems present possibilities for being appropriately sensitive to cultural and ethnic concerns of families and communities.
Progressively, we are seeing the development of early intervention programs for young children who are at risk for EBD. Although relatively few in number, these programs focus on providing nurturing and supportive environments for young children, giving parents the skills and dispositions needed for developing feelings of competence, self-determination, and connectedness in their children, and fostering a sense of community and increased personal capacity in all participants.
More and more schools are embracing and applying school-wide, positive behavioral support systems for all children. These systems give rise to thriving school communi- ties where the primary goals are solid learning and growth for every child. Such schools generate the protective buffers children need to sustain themselves and grow into healthy citizens and adults. These schools spawn safe and caring environments, positive relation- ships with peers, and strong bonds with caring teachers and adults.
Finally, well-respected leaders on every level are challenging and expecting all parents to play more significant roles in nurturing and caring for their children—turning off their televisions, listening to their children read, helping children with homework, and engaging in relationship-forming activities. There are many challenges in serving children and youth with emotional and behavioral disorders, but there is cause for hope and optimism on many fronts.
8-1 Describe how the lives of people with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) have changed since the advent of IDEA.
● Increasingly, children and youth at risk for EBD are receiving preventative treatment and support for developing appropriate social and academic behaviors.
● Greater efforts are directed at children and youth who have been diagnosed with EBD so their behaviors and related condi- tions do not worsen or become more chronic over time.
● Contemporary interventions improve outcomes for children and youth through pre-referral interventions, school-wide ef- forts to promote positive behaviors in all children and youth, evidence-based approaches provided by collaborative teams of skilled professionals, increased access to inclusive settings
(regular education classrooms and related experiences), a fo- cus on preventing serious, violent, or destructive behaviors, and provision of community-based and family-sensitive systems.
8-2 Explain the various definitions and classifica- tions of EBD.
● The IDEA definition of EBD describes a chronic condition that causes an inability to learn and/or to build or maintain normal relationships. It may also include inappropriate types of behav- ior, depression, or tendencies to develop physical symptoms or fears.
● An alternate definition proposed but not adopted by IDEA provides more precision in identification, considers cultural and ethnic norms, and admits co-occurrence with other disabilities.
Chapter Review
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● Classification systems provide common descriptions and ter- minology among professionals, parents, and affected individu- als. The two common classification systems are derived from statistics about externalizing and internalizing behaviors and from clinical practice.
8-3 Describe the characteristics and prevalence of children and youth with EBD.
● Children and youth with EBD tend to have average or below- average intellectual capacity, reflected in challenges mastering academic, social, and adaptive skills.
● Social and adaptive skill challenges are manifested in poor re- lationships, inappropriate classroom behaviors, bullying per- petration and victimization, social fears, depression and other mood disorders, conduct disorders, and/or delinquency.
● Students with EBD often experience significant academic defi- cits and finish high school at much lower rates than the general population and students with other disabilities. Adults with EBD have low rates of employment and higher rates of incarceration.
● A reasonable estimate of 3 to 6 percent of children and youth have EBD, but most remain unidentified.
8-4 List the causes and risk factors associated with EBD.
● Behavior disorders are likely caused by complex interactions among a variety of personal, familial, socioeconomic, and bio- logical factors. Researchers have identified connections to par- enting styles; family dysfunction including discord, abuse, and neglect; the stresses of poverty; and inherited tendencies.
8-5 Describe the assessment procedures used to identify EBD in children and youth.
● Assessment procedures are conducted by multiple profession- als using multiple methods.
● Systematic screening for behavior disorders (SSBD) proceeds through three stages: (1) nomination of potential cases by class- room teachers, (2) ranking nominated students by severity and frequency of behaviors, and (3) systematic observations across school environments.
● Identified children are then assessed with more specific and intensive measures.
8-6 Describe the different interventions for children and youth with EBD from early childhood through adulthood.
● Collaborative teams design and implement pre-referral inter- ventions to address behavior needs in the least restrictive en- vironment, as with response to intervention (RtI) and positive behavior support (PBS) systems.
● If students are served in special education, then the multidisci- plinary team conducts functional behavior assessments to learn the antecedents and consequences of the behavior. Planned interventions then manipulate these aspects to shape more ap- propriate behaviors.
● Systems of care strive to involve all important individuals and sources of support in an individual’s life to address behavior concerns.
● As in all disability intervention, the earlier, the better. Preven- tion is better and easier than addressing ingrained behaviors in later years. Early childhood identification and intervention with children and their families is both timely and effective.
● Programs for children and youth focus on replacing maladaptive behavior with appropriate and productive skills and disposi- tions. This may be accomplished through individual counseling, group therapy, and family therapy. Some individuals respond well to medications for controlling their conditions.
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Standards to Accompany Chapter 8
If you are thinking about a career in special education, you should know that many states use national standards developed by the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) to assess a teacher candidate’s knowledge and skills for working with students with disabilities. See a complete listing of the seven CEC Content Standards on the inside cover of this text.
1 Learner Development and Individual Learner Differences
2 Learning Environments 4 Assessment 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies 7 Collaboration
Mastery Activities and Assignments To master the content within this chapter, complete the following activities and assignments: 1. Complete a written test of the chapter’s content. If your
instructor requires a written test of your content knowl- edge for this chapter, keep a copy for your portfolio.
2. Review the Case Study on Embracing Diversity, “Leon,” and respond in writing to the Application Questions.
Keep a copy of the Case Study and your written response for your portfolio.
3. Participate in a community service learning activity. Community service is a valuable way to enhance your learning experience. Develop a reflective journal of the service learning experience for your portfolio.
C H A P T E R R E V I E W
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204
CHAPTER 9
Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
Learning Objectives After you complete this chapter, you will be able to:
9-1 Describe how the lives of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities have changed since the advent of IDEA.
9-2 Explain the various definitions and classifications of intellectual disabilities.
9-3 Describe the characteristics and prevalence of children and youth with intellectual disabilities.
9-4 List the causes and risk factors associated with intellectual disabilities.
9-5 Describe the assessment procedures used to identify intellectual disabilities in children and youth.
9-6 Describe the different interventions for children and youth with intellectual disabilities from early childhood through adulthood.
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205
SNAPSHOT Actress Lauren Potter
I’m Lauren Potter. I’m just a 24-year- old girl who is working hard to live my dreams and make my difference in the world.
In order to do that, I’ve had to face challenges. Sometimes even seem- ingly simple things, like walking and talking, have been a challenge. But I never let that stop me. I have always continued to dream big and to fight hard to pursue those dreams.
When I was young, my dream was to be an actress. Sure people told me I’d never be able to do it, but I replied,
“Just watch me!” Now they are watch- ing me, but this time on the big screen. I filmed my first movie when I was 16 years old, and I am currently an actress on Fox’s hit TV show Glee that just celebrated its 100th episode.
As a girl who has accomplished things that many didn’t think were possible, I know that people can be wrong when they judge someone else just because they are different. We are all different. And that isn’t bad, it’s just, well, different!
Because of Glee I have been given a chance to pursue another dream of mine—to make the world a more
welcoming place for people who are different—especially for people like me who have always been told “you can’t” instead of “you can.” I want to live in a world where everyone can live, go to school and go to work without having to be afraid. Afraid of being judged, afraid of being bullied or cyberbullied. Afraid of new things. Afraid of failure. Afraid of dreaming. In fact, I want to live in a world where people are actually celebrated for their differences, just as I celebrate mine!
Do you want to live in that world? Do you want to join me in “being the change”?
I believe we can be the generation that makes it happen! That’s why I’m taking a stand for acceptance and in- clusion. And I’m hoping that everyone will join me.
Special Olympics is an organiza- tion that celebrates differences and gives people of all abilities the chance to be a champion and a star. At the Special Olympics World Games Los Angeles 2015, the whole world will have a chance to show that they too stand up for acceptance and inclusion of all people by celebrating the joy, courage, and determination of the 7,000 athletes who will participate. I am so proud and honored to be a part of this wonderful mission as a World Games Goodwill Ambassador. I will continue to cheer on the athletes and stand with them as we tell those who still may say or think we can’t do it, “Just watch me!”
SOURCE: Potter, Lauren. (2104, June 2). “I’m Talking a Stand to Make My Dif ference in the World.” Huf fington Post. The Blog. Retrieved February 7, 2015, from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lauren-potter/im-taking -a-stand-to-make_b_5431373.html
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9-1 A Changing Era in the Lives of People with Intellectual Disabilities This chapter is about people whose ability to understand the world and develop meaning from social networks may differ significantly from what is considered “typical.” Their growth and development depend on the educational, social, and medical supports made available throughout life. Lauren from our opening Snapshot is a young woman with an intellectual disability who has drive, talent, and a wonderful support network of family, friends, and teachers. As she moves through her adult years, she is achieving the dream of being an actress, but still longs for being viewed first and foremost as “Lauren,” a typical person who just happens to have Down syndrome.
Lauren is also a person with an intellectual disability, but she is not necessarily representative of the wide range of ability that characterizes people who have this condi- tion. For example, this wide range of ability may include 6-year-old Juliana, described as having a mild intellectual disability who may be no more than one or two years behind the normal development of academic and social skills. Prior to the passage of IDEA, many children with intellectual disabilities were not identified until they entered elementary
Intellectual disability Limited ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn from experience.
9 -1 A C H A N G I N G E R A I N T H E L I V E S O F P E O P L E W I T H I N T E L L E C T UA L D I S A B I L I T I E S
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C H A P T E R 9 I N T E L L E C T U A L A N D D E V E L O P M E N TA L D I S A B I L I T I E S206
school at age 5 or 6, because they may not have exhibited physical or learning delays that are readily identifiable during the early childhood years. As these children enter school, developmental delays become more apparent. During early primary grades, it is common for the cognitive and social differences of children with intellectual disabilities to be at- tributed to immaturity. However, with the passage of IDEA, educators now recognize the need for specialized services to support a child’s development in the natural settings of school, neighborhood, and home.
People with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities have challenges that often transcend the classroom. Some have significant, multiple disabling conditions, including sensory, physical, and emotional problems. People with moderate intellectual disabilities are able to learn and use adaptive skills that allow independence, with varying levels of support. These skills include the abilities to dress and feed themselves, to meet their own personal care and health needs, and to develop safety skills that enable them to be more independent in the community. These individuals often have the ability to communicate their needs and desires. Most people develop spoken language skills; others may rely on manual forms of communication like sign language or communication boards. Their social interaction skills may be limited, which makes it a challenge for them to interact spontaneously with others.
People with profound intellectual disabilities often depend on others to maintain even their most basic life functions, including eating, hygiene, communicating, and dressing. This certainly does not mean that education and treatment beyond routine care and main- tenance are not beneficial. The extent of profound disabilities is one reason why this group of children was excluded from public schools prior to passage of IDEA. Exclusion was often justified on the basis that schools did not have the resources, facilities, or trained profes- sionals to deal with the needs of these students.
9-2 Definitions and Classification of Intellectual Disabilities People with intellectual disabilities have been labeled with pejorative terms for centuries, including “feebleminded,” “idiot,” “imbecile,” and “moron.” More recently, they have been stereotyped with one of the most derogatory terms in the English language—retard. As Lauren Potter stated in an interview with Buxton (2015):
The R-word is a hateful word. We need to stop, to end the R-word in every place. I don’t know why people are so mean. All I want from you is to stop saying the R-word.… That’s what I am trying to let my fans know, that’s a really bad word. You can’t say any- thing bad about other people—it will hurt other people.
The terms mental retardation and mentally retarded were officially stripped from United States federal health, education, and labor policy in 2010, when Rosa’s Law (PL 111-256) was passed. “Intellectual disability” or “individuals with an intellectual disability” are now used to replace those outdated terms. Although the policy has changed, the pejorative use of the r-word is too frequently used today.
9-2a Definition The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) states that intellectual disability is characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, and must originate before the age of 18 (AAIDD, 2013).
The AAIDD definition has evolved through years of effort to more clearly reflect the ever-changing understanding of intellectual disabilities. In recent years, the concept of adaptive behavior has played an increasingly important role in defining and classifying people with intellectual disabilities.
Intellectual Functioning Intellectual functioning, often referred to as intelligence, includes an individual’s ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, compre- hend complex ideas, and learn from experience (AAIDD, 2013). These abilities are assessed
Standard 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) Professionals across multiple disciplines engaged in the advocacy for, study, treatment, and education of intellectual disabilities.
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9 -2 D E F I N I T I O N S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F I N T E L L E C T UA L D I S A B I L I T I E S 207
by a standardized intelligence test in which a person’s score is compared with the average of other people who have taken the same test (referred to as a normative sample). The statisti- cal average for an intelligence test is generally set at 100. We state this by saying that the person has an intelligence quotient (IQ) of 100. Psychologists use a mathematical concept called the standard deviation to determine the extent to which any given individual’s score deviates from this average of 100. An individual who scores more than two standard devia- tions below 100 on an intelligence test meets AAIDD’s definition of significant limitations in intellectual functioning. This means that people with IQs of approximately 70 to 75 and lower would be considered as having intellectual disabilities.
Adaptive Behavior AAIDD defines adaptive behavior as a collection of conceptual, social, and practical skills that have been learned by people to function in their everyday lives. (Figure 9.1 provides several examples of adaptive behavior.) If a person has limita- tions in these adaptive skills, he or she may need some additional assistance or supports to participate more fully in both family and community life.
As is true with intelligence, adaptive skills also may be measured by standardized tests. These tests, most often referred to as adaptive behavior scales, generally use structured interviews or direct observations to obtain information. Adaptive behavior scales measure the individual’s ability to take care of personal needs (such as hygiene) and to relate ap- propriately to others in social situations. Adaptive skills may also be assessed through informal appraisal, such as observations by family members or professionals who are familiar with the individual, or through anecdotal records.
Age of Onset The AAIDD definition specifies that the intellectual disabilities must originate before a person is 18 years old. The reason for choosing age 18 as a cutoff point is that intellectual disabilities belong to a family of conditions referred to as developmental dis- abilities. Developmental disabilities are mental and/or physical impairments that are diag- nosed at birth or during the childhood and adolescent years. A developmental disability results in substantial functional limitations in at least three areas of major life activity, such as self-care, language, learning, mobility, self-direction, capacity for independent living, and economic self-sufficiency.
AAIDD emphasizes the importance of a positive environment for fostering growth, development, and individual well-being. Thus, a person’s participation and interaction within the environment are indicators of adaptive functioning. The more an individual engages in activities in their communities, such as work, leisure, and community liv- ing, the more likely that an “adaptive fit” will develop between the person and his or her environment.
Standard deviation A statistical measure of the amount that an individual score deviates from the average.
Adaptive behavior Conceptual, social, and practical skills that people have learned to function in their everyday lives.
Developmental disabilities Mental and/or physical impair- ments that limit substantial functioning in at least three areas of major life activity.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Practical
Activities of daily living Instrumental activities of daily living
Eating Transfer/mobility Toileting Dressing
Occupational skills Maintains safe environments
Meal preparation Housekeeping Transportation Taking medication Money management Telephone use
Conceptual
Language (receptive and expressive)
Reading and writing
Money concepts
Self-direction
Social Interpersonal skills Responsibility Self-esteem Gullibility
Naivete Follows rules Obeys laws Avoids victimization
`
Figure 9.1 Examples of Conceptual, Social, and Practical Adaptive Skills
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C H A P T E R 9 I N T E L L E C T U A L A N D D E V E L O P M E N TA L D I S A B I L I T I E S208
The physical and mental health of an individual influences his or her overall intellec- tual and adaptive functioning. AAIDD indicates that the functioning level for people with intellectual disabilities is significantly affected (facilitated or inhibited) by the effects of physical and mental health. Some individuals [with intellectual disabilities] enjoy good health with no significant activity limitations; others, however, have a variety of health limitations, such as seizure disorder or cerebral palsy, that could create compounding conditions that lead to restricted activities and social participation. Additionally, people with intellectual disabilities have a 50 percent higher rate of psychiatric disorders than the general population (Werner & Stawski, 2012). When a person has a dual diagnosis, a co-occurrence of intellectual disability and a psychiatric disorder, the compounded effects of the two conditions can create a greater need for support.
The level of independence a person with an intellectual disability has will be affected by the environmental context of their lives. Environmental context is the term for the inter- related conditions in which people live their lives. Context is based on an environmental perspective with three different levels: (1) the immediate social setting that includes the person and her or his family, (2) the broader neighborhood, community, or organizations that provide services and supports (such as public education), and (3) the overarching patterns of culture and society. The various levels are important to people with intellectual disabilities because they provide differing opportunities and can foster well-being.
Putting the Definition into Practice There are five criteria that professionals should apply as they put the definition into practice:
1. Limitations in a person’s present functioning must be considered within the context of community environments typical of the individual’s age, peers, and culture.
2. Valid assessment considers cultural and linguistic diversity as well as differences in communication, sensory, motor, and behavioral factors.
3. Within an individual, limitations often coexist with strengths.
4. An important purpose of describing limitations is to develop a profile of needed supports.
5. With appropriate personalized supports over a sustained period, the life functioning of the person with [intellectual disabilities] generally will improve. (AAIDD, 2013)
9-2b Classification To more clearly understand the diversity of people with intellectual disabilities, several classification systems have been developed. Each classification method reflects an at- tempt by a particular discipline (such as medicine or education) to better understand and respond to the needs of individuals with intellectual disabilities. We will discuss four of these methods.
Severity of the Condition The extent to which a person’s intellectual capabilities and adaptive skills differ from what is considered “normal” can be described by using terms such as mild, moderate, severe, or profound. Mild describes the highest level of performance; profound describes the lowest level. Distinctions between severity levels associated with in- tellectual disabilities are determined by a clinician’s impression of the severity of adaptive functioning. Severity is assessed across three domains. These are conceptual, social, and practical life skills (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Medical Descriptors Intellectual disabilities may be classified on the basis of the biological origin of the condition. A classification system that uses the cause of the condition to differentiate people with intellectual disabilities is often referred to as a medical classifica- tion system because it emerged primarily from the field of medicine. Common medical de- scriptors include fetal alcohol syndrome, chromosomal abnormalities (e.g., Down syndrome), metabolic disorders (e.g., phenylketonuria, thyroid dysfunction), and infections (e.g., syphilis, rubella). These medical conditions will be discussed more thoroughly in the section on causation.
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Classification Based on Needed Support Today, AAIDD uses a classifica- tion system based on the type and extent of the support that the individual requires to function in the natural settings of home and community. Four levels of support are recommended:
● Intermittent. Supports are provided on an “as-needed basis.” These supports may be (1) episodic—that is, the person does not always need assistance; or (2) short-term, occurring during lifespan transitions (e.g., job loss or acute medi- cal crisis). Intermittent supports may be of high or low intensity.
● Limited. Supports are characterized by consistency; the time required may be limited, but the need is not intermittent. Fewer staff may be required, and costs may be lower than those associated with more intensive levels of support (examples include time- limited employment training and supports during transition from school to adulthood).
● Extensive. Supports are characterized by regular involvement (e.g., daily) in at least some environments, such as work or home; supports are not time-limited (e.g., long- term job and home-living support will be necessary).
● Pervasive. Supports must be constant and of high intensity. They have to be pro- vided across multiple environments and may be life-sustaining in nature. Pervasive supports typically involve more staff and are more intrusive than extensive or time- limited supports.
The AAIDD’s emphasis on classifying people with intellectual disabilities on the basis of needed support is an important departure from the more restrictive perspectives of the traditional approaches. Supports may be described not only in terms of the level of assistance needed, but also by type—that is, as formal or natural support systems. Formal supports may be funded through government programs, such as income maintenance, health care, education, housing, or employment. Another type of formal support is the advocacy organi- zation (e.g., The ARC of the United States) that lobbies on behalf of people with intellectual disabilities for improved and expanded services, as well as for providing family members a place to interact and support one another. Natural supports differ from formal supports in that they are provided not by agencies or organizations, but by the nuclear and extended family members, friends, or neighbors. Natural supports are often more effective than formal supports in helping people with intellectual disabilities access and participate in a community setting. Research suggests that adults with intellectual disabilities who are suc- cessfully employed following school find more jobs through their natural support network of friends and family than through formal support systems (Crockett & Hardman, 2009).
9-3 Characteristics and Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities We now examine the myriad characteristics commonly found in people with intellectual disabilities that can affect their academic learning, as well as their ability to adapt to home, school, and community environments.
9-3a Characteristics Common to Children and Youth with Intellectual Disabilities People who have an intellectual disability are each unique. They have strengths and chal- lenges just like their typically developing peers. The following is a list of characteristics commonly occurring with intellectual disability, but will vary in severity with each person.
The ARC of the United States A national organization that works to enhance the quality of life for people with intellectual disabilities.
Natural supports Supports for people with disabili- ties that are provided by family, friends, and peers.
Photo 9.1 School and community programs are moving away from pejorative classification categories (such as “trainable”) to descriptions of the individual based on type and extent of support needed to function in natural settings.
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Learning and Memory Intelligence is the ability to acquire, remember, and use knowledge. A primary characteristic of intellectual disabilities is diminished intellectual abil- ity that translates into a difference in the rate and efficiency with which the person acquires, remembers, and uses new knowledge, compared to the general population.
The learning and memory capabilities of people with intellectual disabilities are signifi- cantly below average in comparison to peers without disabilities. Children with intellectual disabilities, as a group, are less able to grasp abstract, as opposed to concrete, concepts. Accordingly, they benefit from instruction that is meaningful and useful, and they learn more from contact with real objects than they do from representations or symbols.
Intelligence is also associated with learning how to learn, often referred to as meta- cognition, and with the ability to apply what is learned to new experiences, known as generalization. Children and adults with intellectual disabilities learn at a slower pace than peers without disabilities, and they have difficulty relating information to new sit- uations (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Hill, 2010; Hua, Morgan, Kaldenbers, & Goo, 2012). Generalization happens “when a child applies previously learned content or skills to a situ- ation in which the information has not been taught” (Drew & Hardman, 2007; Falcomata, Wacker, Ringdahl, Vinquist, & Dutt, 2013). The greater the severity of intellectual deficit, the greater the difficulties with memory. Memory problems in children with intellectual disabilities have been attributed to several factors. People with intellectual disabilities have trouble focusing on relevant stimuli in learning and in real-life situations, sometimes attending to the wrong things (Kittler, Krinsky-McHale, & Devenny, 2004; Westling & Fox, 2009).
Self-Regulation People with intellectual disabilities do not appear to develop efficient learning strategies, such as the ability to rehearse a task (to practice a new concept, either out loud or to themselves, over and over). The ability to rehearse a task is related to a broad concept known as self-regulation (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Hill, 2009). Whereas most peo- ple will rehearse to try to remember, individuals with intellectual disabilities do not appear to be able to apply this skill.
Some researchers have begun to focus on information-processing theories to better un- derstand learning differences in people with intellectual disabilities. Information-processing theorists study how a person processes information from sensory stimuli to motoric output (Sternberg, 2008). In information-processing theory, the learning differences in people with intellectual disabilities are seen as the underdevelopment of metacognitive processes. Meta- cognitive processes help the person plan how to solve a problem. First, the person decides which strategy he or she thinks will solve a problem. Then the strategy is implemented. Dur- ing implementation, the person monitors whether the strategy is working and makes any ad- aptations necessary. Finally, the results of the strategy are evaluated in terms of whether the problem has been solved and how the strategy could be used in other situations (Sternberg, 2008). Even though children with intellectual disabilities may have difficulty applying the best strategy when confronted with new learning situations, they can learn ways to do so.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Generalization The process of applying previously learned information to new settings or situations.
Self-regulation The ability to regulate one’s own behavior.
Information-processing theories Theories on how a person processes information from sensory stimuli to motoric output.
E-Buddies Best Buddies International, founded by Anthony K. Shriver (son of Sar- gent and Eunice Kennedy Shriver), offers a social media program called e-Buddies, which provides opportu- nities for Internet friendships among people with intellectual and develop- mental disabilities and people who do
not have a disability. The e-Buddies program has proven to be a fun and safe way for people with intellec- tual disabilities to make new friends. E-mail matches are made on the ba- sis of similar age, gender, geography, and shared interests. The e-Buddies program provides individuals with an
intellectual disability an opportunity to develop new friendships through social media while also acquiring computer skills. For people without disabilities, e-Buddies is a unique op- portunity to change a life and make a friend. (For more information, visit the e-Buddies website.)
LEARNING THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA
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Social stories are one method that is used to teach self-regulation to individuals who have intellectual disabilities. A social story is a personalized narrative that embeds social cues and actions that are appropriate in particular social situations (Flores et al., 2014).
Adaptive Skills The abilities to adapt to the demands of the environment, relate to others, and take care of personal needs are all important aspects of an independent lifestyle. In the school setting, adaptive behavior is defined as the ability to apply skills learned in a classroom to daily activities in natural settings.
The adaptive skills of people with intellectual disabilities often lag behind those of their peers without disabilities. A child with intellectual disabilities may have difficulty in both learning and applying skills for a number of reasons, including a higher level of distract- ibility, inattentiveness, failure to read social cues, and impulsive behavior. Thus, these children will need to be taught appropriate reasoning, judgment, and social skills that lead to more positive social relationships and personal competence. Adaptive skill differences for people with intellectual disabilities may also be associated with a lower self-image and a greater expectancy for failure in both academic and social situations.
Academic Achievement Re- search on the academic achievement of children with mild to moderate in- tellectual disabilities has suggested that they will experience significant delays in the areas of literacy and mathematics. Reading comprehension is usually considered the weakest area of learning. In general, students with mild intellectual disabilities are better at decoding words than comprehend- ing their meaning (Drew & Hardman, 2007), and they tend to read below their own developmental level (Katims, 2000; Thurlow et al., 2012).
Children with intellectual disabilities also perform poorly on mathematical computa- tions, although their performance may be closer to what is typical for their developmental level. These children may be able to learn basic computations but may be unable to apply concepts appropriately in a problem-solving situation (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Hill, 2010; Thurlow et al., 2012).
A growing body of research has indicated that children with moderate or severe intel- lectual disabilities can be taught academics as a means to gain information, participate in social settings, increase their orientation and mobility, and make choices (Browder, Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade-Little, & Snell, 2011; Browder, Jimenez, & Trela, 2012; Browder & Spooner, 2011). Reading helps students develop a useful vocabulary that will facilitate their inclusion in school and community settings (Browder et al., 2011). People with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities who struggle with phonetic reading can often learn to memorize whole words. Sight word reading often begins with learning their names and those of significant others in their lives, as well as common survival words, including help, exit, danger, and stop. Math assists students in learning such skills as how to tell time, how to add and subtract small sums to manage finances (such as balancing a checkbook), and how to appropriately exchange money or use debit cards for products in community settings (e.g., grocery stores, movie theaters, and vending machines).
Speech and Language One of the most serious and obvious characteristics of indi- viduals with intellectual disabilities is delayed speech and language development. The most common speech difficulties involve articulation problems, voice problems, and stuttering. Language problems are generally associated with delays in language development rather than with a bizarre use of language (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Hill, 2010; Moore & Montgomery, 2008). Kaiser (2000) emphasized that “the overriding goal of language inter- vention is to increase the functional communication of students” (p. 457).
Articulation problems Speech problems such as omissions, substitutions, additions, and distortions of words.
Voice problems Abnormal acoustical qualities in a person’s speech.
Stuttering A speech problem involving abnor- mal repetitions, prolongations, and hesitations as one speaks.
Photo 9.2 The academic performance of children with intellectual disabilities varies greatly, depending on the level of intellectual ability and adaptive skills. Many children with mild intellectual disabilities may learn to read, though at a slower rate, whereas those with moderate intellectual disabilities benefit from a functional academic program.
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There is considerable variation in the language skills of people with intellectual disabil- ities. In general, the severity of the speech and language problems is positively correlated with the cause and severity of the intellectual disabilities: The milder the intellectual dis- abilities, the less pervasive the language difficulty (Moore & Montgomery, 2008). Speech and language difficulties may range from minor speech defects, such as articulation prob- lems, to the complete absence of expressive language. Speech and language pathologists are able to minimize speech differences for most students with intellectual disabilities.
Physical Development The physical appearance of most children with intellectual disabilities does not differ from that of same-age children who are not disabled. However, a relationship exists between the severity of the intellectual disabilities and the extent of phys- ical differences for the individual (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Hill, 2010; Drew & Hardman, 2007). For people with severe intellectual disabilities, there is a significant probability of re- lated physical challenges; genetic factors are likely to underlie both disabilities. Individuals
Eunice Kennedy Shriver: A Celebration of an Extraordinary Life Dedicated to People with Intellectual Disabilities
As founder and honorary chairperson of Special Olympics and executive vice president of the Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. Foundation, Eunice Kennedy Shriver was a leader in the worldwide struggle to improve and enhance the lives of individuals with intellectual disabili- ties for more than five decades. Born in Brookline, Massachusetts, the fifth of nine children of Joseph P. and Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy and sister to Presi- dent John F. Kennedy, she received a bachelor of arts degree in sociology from Stanford University.…
In 1957, Eunice Shriver took over the direction of the Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. Foundation. The foundation, estab- lished in 1946 as a memorial to Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr.—the family’s eldest son, who was killed in World War II—has two major objectives: to seek the preven- tion of intellectual disabilities by iden- tifying its causes, and to improve the means by which society deals with citi- zens who have intellectual disabilities. Under Eunice Shriver’s leadership, the foundation has helped achieve many significant advances, including the es- tablishment by President Kennedy of the President’s Committee on Mental Retardation in 1961 (now called the President’s Committee for People with Intellectual Disabilities); development
of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) in 1962 (now the Eunice Kennedy Shriver NICHD); the establishment of a network of university-affiliated facilities and mental retardation [intellectual disabili- ties] research centers at major medical schools across the United States in 1967; the establishment of Special Olympics in 1968; the creation of major centers for the study of medical ethics at Har- vard and Georgetown Universities in 1971; the founding of the “Community of Caring” for the reduction of intellec- tual disabilities among babies of teen- agers in 1981…and the establishment of “Community of Caring” programs in 1,200 public and private schools (now the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Center for Community of Caring at the University of Utah).
Recognized throughout the world for her efforts on behalf of people with in- tellectual disabilities, Shriver received many honors and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Le- gion of Honor Award, the Prix de la Cou- ronne Francaise, the Mary Lasker Award, the Philip Murray-William Green Award (presented to Eunice and Sargent Shriver by the AFL-CIO), the American Associa- tion on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) Hu- manitarian Award, the Laetare Medal of
the University of Notre Dame, the Order of the Smile of Polish Children, the Frank- lin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Freedom from Want Award, the National Women’s Hall of Fame, the Laureus Sports Award, the National Collegiate Athletics As- sociation (NCAA) Theodore Roosevelt Award, and the International Olympic Committee Award.…
In 1984, U.S. President Reagan awarded Eunice Shriver the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation’s highest civil- ian award, for her work on behalf of people with intellectual disabilities, and in 2005, she was honored for her work with Special Olympics as one of the first recipients of a sidewalk medallion on The Extra Mile Points of Light Path- way in Washington, D.C. Eunice passed away on August 11, 2009 at the age of 88. To learn more about Eunice Kennedy Shriver, visit the Eunice Kennedy Shriver or the Special Olympics websites.
Question for Reflection Eunice Kennedy Shriver is an example of how one very special person can make a profound difference. How have you made a difference in the lives of people with intellectual disabilities? Volunteer- ing for Special Olympics, Best Buddies, or the Community of Caring schools where you live?
REFLECT ON THIS
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with mild intellectual disabilities, in contrast, may exhibit no physical differences because the intellectual disabilities may be associated with environmental, not genetic, factors.
The majority of children with severe and profound intellectual disabilities have multiple disabilities that often affect nearly every aspect of their intellectual and physical develop- ment (Westling & Fox, 2009). Increasing health problems for children with intellectual disabilities may be associated with genetic or environmental factors. For example, people with Down syndrome have a higher incidence of congenital heart defects and respiratory problems directly linked to their genetic condition. On the other hand, some children with intellectual disabilities experience health problems because of their living conditions. A significantly higher percentage of children with intellectual disabilities come from low socioeconomic backgrounds in comparison to peers without disabilities. Children who do not receive proper nutrition and who are exposed to inadequate sanitation have a greater susceptibility to infections (Drew & Hardman, 2007). Health services for families in these situations may be minimal or nonexistent, depending on whether they are able to access government medical support, so children with intellectual disabilities may become ill more often than those who do not have disabilities. Consequently, children with intellectual disabilities may miss more school or not get involved in healthy activities, such as sports and recreation.
In the area of health and physical fitness, one individual truly stands alone as recog- nizing the importance of engaging people with intellectual disabilities in fitness activi- ties, particularly sports. This person was Eunice Kennedy Shriver, founder of the Special Olympics, and sister of President John F. Kennedy. More than any other notable figure in history, Eunice Shriver changed society’s perceptions of what is possible for people with intellectual disabilities. For more information on the unparalleled accomplishments of Eunice Shriver, see the nearby Reflect on This feature, “Eunice Kennedy Shriver: A Celebra- tion of an Extraordinary Life Dedicated to People with Intellectual Disabilities.”
9-3b Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities The prevalence of intellectual disabilities worldwide and across all ages is estimated at 1 percent of the total population (Maulik et al., 2011). For school-age children between ages 6 and 21, the most recent annual report from the U.S. Department of Education (2014) reported that approximately 414,000 students were labeled as having intellectual disabili- ties and were receiving services under IDEA. Approximately 7 percent of all students with disabilities between the ages of 6 and 21 are identified as having intellectual disabilities (see Figure 9.2).
The President’s Committee for People with Intellectual Disabilities (2014) estimates that approximately 7 to 8 million Americans of all ages have intellectual disabilities. Intellectual disabilities affect about one in ten families in the United States. Note that we are able only to estimate prevalence, because no one has actually counted the number of people with intellectual disabilities.
Total School-Age Population
School Population with Intellectual Disabilities
90% with mild intellectual disabilities
0.7% with intellectual disabilities
10% with moderate, severe, or profound intellectual disabilities
Figure 9.2 Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities
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SOURCE: U.S. Department of Ed- ucation. (2011). To Assure the Free Appropriate Public Educa- tion of All Children with Disabili- ties. Thirtieth Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
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9-4 Causes of Intellectual Disabilities Intellectual disabilities result from multiple causes, some known, many unknown (The ARC, 2011a). Possible known causes of intellectual disabilities include genetic conditions, problems during pregnancy, problems at birth, problems after birth, and poverty-related deprivation.
9-4a Genetic Conditions Many genetic conditions are associated with intellectual disability. These conditions may result from genes inherited from parents, errors when genes combine, or from external factors, such as infections during pregnancy or overexposure to X-rays. Genetic disorders can be classified into three types: chromosomal, single gene, and multifactorial disorders. Chromosomal disorders are caused by a person having too many or two few chromosomes or by a change in the structure of the chromosome that disrupts its function.
One of the most widely recognized types of intellectual disabilities, Down syndrome, results from chromosomal abnormality. There are more than 400,000 people living in the United States with Down syndrome. About one in every 700 babies in the United States is born with Down syndrome (National Down Syndrome Society [NDSS], 2015). Physical characteristics of a person with Down syndrome include slanting eyes with folds of skin at the inner corners (epicanthal folds); excessive ability to extend the joints; short, broad hands with a single crease across the palm on one or both hands; broad feet with short toes; a flat bridge of the nose; short, low-set ears; a short neck; a small head; a small oral cavity; and/or short, high-pitched cries in infancy.
Down syndrome has received widespread attention from medical, education, and social services professionals for many years. Part of this attention is due to the ability to iden- tify a cause with some degree of certainty. The cause of such genetic errors has become increasingly associated with the age of both the mother and the father. The most common type of Down syndrome is trisomy 21. In about 25 percent of the cases associated with trisomy 21, the age of the father (particularly when he is over 55 years old) is also a factor.
Other chromosomal disorders associated with intellectual disabilities include Williams syndrome and fragile X syndrome. Williams syndrome, a rare genetic disease that occurs in about 1 in every 20,000 births, is characterized by an absence of genetic materials on the seventh pair of chromosomes. Most people with Williams syndrome have some degree of intellectual disabilities and associated medical problems (such as heart and blood vessel abnormalities, low weight gain, dental abnormalities, kidney abnormalities, hypersensitive hearing, musculoskeletal problems, and elevated blood calcium levels). While exhibiting deficits in academic learning and spatial ability typical of people with intellectual disabili- ties, they are often described as highly personable and verbal, exhibiting unique abilities in spoken language.
Fragile X syndrome is a common heredi- tary cause of intellectual disabilities associ- ated with genetic anomalies in the 23rd pair of chromosomes. Males are usually more severely affected than females because they have only one X chromosome. Females have more protection because they have two X chromosomes; one X contains the normal functioning version of the gene and the other is nonfunctioning. The normal gene partially compensates for the nonfunc- tioning gene. The term fragile X refers to the fact that this gene is pinched off in some blood cells. For those affected by fragile X syndrome, intellectual differences can range from mild learning disabilities and a normal IQ to severe intellectual disabilities
Trisomy 21 The most common type of Down syndrome in which the chromo- somal pairs on the 21st pair have an extra chromosome; also called nondisjunction.
Williams syndrome A rare genetic disease that occurs once in every 20,000 births and is characterized by an absence of genetic materials on the seventh pair of chromosomes.
Fragile X syndrome A condition involving damage to the chromosome structure, which appears as a breaking or splitting at the end of the X chromosome.
Photo 9.3 The most common cause of Down syndrome is a chromosomal abnormality known as trisomy 21, in which the 21st chromosomal pair carries one extra chromosome.
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and autism. Physical features may include a large head and flat ears; a long, narrow face with a broad nose; a large forehead; a squared-off chin; prominent testicles; and large hands. People with fragile X are also characterized by speech and language delays or deficiencies and by behavioral problems. Some people with fragile X are socially engaging and friendly, but others have autistic-like characteristics (poor eye contact, hand flapping, hand biting, and a fascination with spinning objects) and may be aggressive. Males may also exhibit hyperactivity.
Single-gene disorders occur when cells cannot produce proteins or enzymes needed to process (metabolize) certain substances that can then become poisonous and damage tissue in the central nervous system. With phenylketonuria (PKU), one such inherited metabolic disorder, the baby is not able to process phenylalanine, a substance found in many foods, including milk ingested by infants. The inability to process phenylalanine results in an accumulation of poisonous substances in the body. If it goes untreated or is not treated promptly (mostly through dietary restrictions), PKU causes varying degrees of intellectual disabilities, ranging from moderate to severe deficits. If treatment is promptly instituted, however, damage may be largely prevented or at least reduced. For this reason, most states now require mandatory screening for all infants to treat the condition as early as possible and prevent lifelong problems.
Multifactorial disorders occur when one or several genes on different chromosomes in combination with environmental factors result in abnormal inheritance patterns. Many researchers are investigating the complex effects of specific genetic combinations and environmental factors. One example of a multifactorial disability is spina bifida, which is discussed in Chapter 14.
9-4b Problems during Pregnancy Prenatal environmental factors such as exposure to drugs and alcohol, toxins, maternal illnesses, and malnutrition can result in intellectual disability. Intoxication is cerebral damage that results from an excessive level of some toxic agent in the mother–fetus system. Excessive maternal use of alcohol or drugs or exposure to certain environ- mental hazards, such as X-rays or insecticides, can damage the child. Damage to the fetus from maternal alcohol consumption is characterized by facial abnormalities, heart problems, low birth weight, small brain size, and intellectual disabilities. The terms fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol ef fects (FAE) (a lesser number of the same symptoms associated with FAS) refer to a group of physical and mental birth de- fects resulting from a woman’s drinking alcohol during pregnancy. FAS is recognized as a leading preventable cause of intellectual disabilities. The National Organization on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (2015) estimated that one in every 100 live births involves FAS and that more than 40,000 babies with alcohol-related problems are born in the United States each year. Similarly, pregnant women who smoke are at greater risk of having a premature baby with complicating developmental problems such as intellectual disabilities (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015). The use of drugs during pregnancy has varying effects on an infant, depending on frequency of use and drug type. Drugs known to produce serious fetal damage include LSD, heroin, morphine, and cocaine.
Maternal substance abuse is also as- sociated with gestation disorders involv- ing prematurity and low birth weight. Prematurity refers to infants delivered before 37 weeks from the first day of the last menstrual period. Low birth weight characterizes babies that weigh 2,500 grams (5½ pounds) or less at birth. Prematurity and low birth weight significantly increase the risk of serious problems at birth, including intellectual disabilities.
Single-gene disorders Disorders that occur when cells cannot produce proteins or enzymes needed to process (metabolize) certain substances that can then become poisonous and damage tissue in the central nervous system.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) A disorder in which an infant cannot digest a substance found in many foods, including milk; may cause intellectual disabilities if left untreated.
Multifactorial disorders Disorders that occur when one or several genes on different chromo- somes in combination with envi- ronmental factors result in abnor- mal inheritance patterns.
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Damage caused to the fetus by the mother’s consumption of alcohol.
Prematurity Infants delivered before 37 weeks from the first day of the mother’s last menstrual period.
Low birth weight A weight of 2,500 grams (5½ pounds) or less at birth.
Photo 9.4 Fetal alcohol syndrome is a leading cause of preventable intellectual disabilities.
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Several types of maternal infections may result in difficulties for an unborn child. The probability of damage is particularly high if the infection occurs during the first three months of pregnancy. Congenital rubella (German measles) causes a variety of conditions, including intellectual disabilities, deafness, blindness, cerebral palsy, cardiac problems, seizures, and a variety of other neurological problems. The widespread administration of a rubella vaccine is one major reason why the incidence of intellectual disabilities as an outcome of rubella has declined significantly in recent years.
Another infection associated with intellectual disabilities is the human immunodefi- ciency virus (HIV). When transmitted from the mother to an unborn child, HIV can result in significant intellectual deficits. The virus actually crosses the placenta and infects the fetus, damaging the infant’s immune system. HIV is a major cause of preventable infec- tious intellectual disabilities (Gargiulo, 2011).
Several conditions associated with unknown prenatal inf luences can result in se- vere disorders. One such condition involves malformations of cerebral tissue. The most dramatic of these malformations is anencephaly, a condition in which the individual has a partial or even complete absence of cerebral tissue. In some cases, portions of the brain appear to develop and then degenerate. In hydrocephalus, which also has unknown origins, an excess of cerebrospinal fluid accumulates in the skull and results in potentially damaging pressure on cerebral tissue. Hydrocephalus may involve an enlarged head and cause decreased intellectual functioning. If surgical intervention occurs early, the damage may be slight because the pressure will not have been seri- ous or prolonged.
9-4c Problems during Birth Difficulties during the birth process can result in injuries that cause intellectual disabilities. The continuing supply of oxygen and nutrients to a baby is a critical factor during delivery. Certain fetal positions may result in damage to the fetus as delivery proceeds. A baby’s oxygen supply may be reduced for a period of time until the head is expelled and the lungs begin to function; this lack of oxygen may result in damage to the brain. Such a condition is known as anoxia (oxygen deprivation). Temporary oxygen deprivation, abnormal labor and delivery, neonatal seizures, and head trauma at birth are examples of the types of injuries that can occur. Additionally, low birth weight and premature delivery correlate with other serious problems that can lead to intellectual disabilities.
9-4d Problems after Birth Childhood diseases such as whooping cough, chicken pox, measles, and Hib disease that may lead to meningitis and encephalitis can cause brain damage. In recent years there has been an increase in American parents electing to not vaccinate their children. Some states are reporting rates as low as 83 percent immunization for incoming kindergarten children. As a result, there have been reported outbreaks of mumps, whooping cough, and measles (CDC, 2015).
Injuries such as a blow to the head or near drowning can also lead to intellectual dis- ability. Additionally, lead, mercury, and other environmental toxins can cause irreparable damage to the brain and nervous system.
9-4e Poverty-Related Deprivation Children living in poverty are at higher risk for malnutrition, childhood diseases, and ex- posure to environmental health hazards, and often receive inadequate health care. Each of these factors increases the risk of intellectual disability. For individuals with mild intellec- tual disabilities, the cause is often not apparent. A significant number of these individuals come from families living in poverty; their home situations often offer few opportunities for learning, which only further contributes to their challenges at school. Additionally, because these high-risk children live in such adverse economic conditions, they generally do not receive proper nutritional care. In addition to poor nutrition, high-risk groups are in greater jeopardy of receiving poor medical care and living in unstable families (Children’s Defense Fund, 2011).
Maternal infection Infection in a mother during preg- nancy, sometimes having the potential to injure an unborn child.
Congenital rubella German measles contracted by a mother during pregnancy, which can cause intellectual disabilities, deafness, blindness, and other neurological problems.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) A virus that reduces immune system function and has been linked to AIDS.
Anencephaly A condition in which the person has a partial or complete absence of cerebral tissue.
Hydrocephalus An excess of cerebrospinal fluid, often resulting in enlargement of the head and pressure on the brain, which may cause intellectual disabilities.
Anoxia A lack of oxygen that may result in permanent damage to the brain.
Encephalitis An inflammation of brain tissue that may damage the central nervous system.
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An important question to be addressed concerning people who have grown up in adverse sociocultural situations is this: How much of the person’s ability is related to sociocultural influences, and how much to genetic factors? This issue is referred to as the nature versus nurture controversy. Numerous studies over the years have focused on the degree to which heredity and environment contribute to intelligence. These stud- ies show that although we are reaching a better understanding of the interactive effects of both heredity and environment, the exact contribution of each to intellectual growth remains unknown.
The term used to describe intellectual disabilities that may be attributable to both sociocultural and genetic factors is cultural–familial intellectual disabilities. People with this condition are often described as (1) having mild intellectual disabilities, (2) having no known biological cause for the condition, (3) having at least one parent or sibling who has mild intellectual disabilities, and (4) growing up in a low socioeconomic status (low SES) home environment.
Although we have presented a number of possible causal factors associated with intellectual disabilities, the cause is unknown and undeterminable in many cases. Additionally, many conditions associated with intellectual disabilities are due to the interaction of hereditar y and environmental factors. Although we cannot always iden- tif y the causes of intellectual disabilities, measures can be taken to prevent their occurrence.
9-5 Identification and Assessment of Intellectual Disabilties As discussed in the definition section, intellectual disability has three distinct eligibility criteria: IQ, adaptive behavior, and age of onset. To determine if a person has an intellec- tual disability, assessments of intelligence and adaptive behavior must be completed and it must be determined that the deficits began prior to the age of 18. Intelligence is typically assessed using an IQ test, which assesses the mental capacity for learning, reasoning, and problem solving. IQ tests are norm-referenced standardized assessments that set the average score at 100. If an individual scores at 70 to 75 or lower (two standard deviations below the norm), they meet the intelligence criteria for intellectual disability. Many different assessments can be used to determine eligibility. Some of the most commonly used IQ tests include the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V), Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (SB5), Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, and the Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (TONI).
In addition to intelligence assessments, a comprehensive evaluation of adaptive be- haviors must be completed. Adaptive behavior includes the collection of conceptual, social, and practical skills that people have learned and perform in their everyday lives. Like the IQ tests, many different tools are available to measure adaptive behaviors, including the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Adaptive Behavior Scale-School, Scales of Inde- pendent Behavior, and the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System. The final criterion for eligibility is the age onset. An intellectual disability must manifest or become present by the age of 18.
9-6 Interventions and Treatments for Intellectual Disability We now turn our attention to educating students with intellectual disabilities from early childhood through the transition from school to adult life. The provision of appropriate services and supports for individuals with intellectual disabilities is a lifelong process. For children with mild intellectual disabilities, educational services may not begin until they are in elementary school. However, for those with more severe intellectual disabilities, services and supports will begin at birth and may continue into the adult years.
Norm–referenced standardized assessments Assessments that are designed to compare and rank test takers in relation to one another. Norm- referenced tests report whether test takers performed better or worse than a hypothetical average student, which is determined by comparing scores against the performance results of a statistically selected group of test takers, typi- cally of the same age or grade level, who have already taken the exam.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 4 Assessment
Nature versus nurture Controversy concerning how much of a person’s ability is related to sociocultural influences (nurture) as opposed to genetic factors (nature).
Cultural–familial intellectual disabilities Intellectual disabilities that may be attributable to both sociocultural and genetic factors.
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9-6a Early Childhood Education Children with mild intellectual disabilities may exhibit subtle developmental delays in com- parison to age-mates, but parents may not view these discrepancies as significant enough to seek intervention during the preschool years. Even if parents are concerned and seek help for their child prior to elementary school, they are often confronted with profession- als who are apathetic toward early childhood education. Some professionals believe that early childhood services may actually create problems, rather than remedy them, because the child may not be mature enough to cope with the pressures of structured learning in an educational environment. Simply stated, the maturation philosophy means that before entering school, children should reach a level of growth at which they are ready to learn certain skills. Unfortunately, this philosophy has kept many children out of the public schools for years.
The antithesis of the maturation philosophy is the prevention of further problems in learning and behavior through intervention. Head Start, funded as a federal preschool program for students from low-income families, is a prevention program that attempts to identify and instruct at-risk children before they enter public school. Although Head Start did not have the results that were initially anticipated (the virtual elimination of school ad- justment problems for students from low-income families), it has represented a significant move forward and continues to receive widespread support from parents and professionals alike. The rationale for early education is widely accepted in the field of special education and is an important part of the IDEA mandate.
Intervention based on normal patterns of growth is referred to as developmental mile- stones because it seeks to develop, remedy, or adapt learner skills based on a child’s varia- tion from what is considered normal. This progression of skills continues as children age chronologically; rate of progress depends on the severity of the condition. Some children with profound intellectual disabilities may never exceed a developmental age of 6 months. Those with moderate intellectual disabilities may develop to a level that will enable them to lead fulfilling lives as adults, with varying levels of support.
The importance of early intervention cannot be overstated. Significant advances have been made in the area of early intervention, including improved assessment, curricula, and instructional technologies; increasing numbers of children receiving services; and appreciation of the need to individualize services for families as well as children (Batshaw, Pellegrino, & Rozien, 2007; Berk, 2011; McDonnell et al., 2014). Early intervention tech- niques, such as infant stimulation programs, focus on the acquisition of sensorimotor skills and intellectual development. Infant stimulation involves learning simple reflex activities and equilibrium reactions. Subsequent intervention then expands into all areas of human growth and development.
9-6b Elementary Education Public education is a relatively new concept as it relates to students with intellectual disabili- ties, particularly those with more severe characteristics. Historically, many of these students were defined as noneducable by public schools because they did not fit the programs offered by general education. Because such programs were built on a foundation of academic learn- ing that emphasized reading, writing, and arithmetic, students with intellectual disabilities could not meet the academic standards set by the schools and, thus, were excluded. Public schools were not expected to adapt to the needs of students with intellectual disabilities; rather, the students were expected to adapt to the schools.
With the passage of Public Law 94-142 (now IDEA), schools that excluded these children for so long now face the challenge of providing an appropriate education for all children with intellectual disabilities. Education has been redefined on the basis of a new set of values. Instruction and support for children of elementary school age with intellectual dis- abilities focus on decreasing dependence on others, while concurrently teaching adaptation to the environment. Therefore, instruction must concentrate on those skills that facilitate the child’s interaction with others and emphasize independence in the community. Instruc- tion for children with intellectual disabilities generally includes development of academic skills, self-help skills, social skills, communication skills, and motor skills.
Head Start A federally funded preschool program for students with disad- vantages to give them “a head start” prior to elementary school.
Infant stimulation An array of visual, auditory, and physical stimuli programs to promote infant development.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
Standard 4 Assessment
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
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Academic Skills Students with intellectual disabilities can benefit from instruction in traditional or functional academic programs. In the area of literacy, students with intellectual disabilities benefit from a systematic instructional program that allows for differences in the rate of learning, but they can learn to read when given rich, intensive, and extensive literary experiences. In fact, some students may achieve as high as a fourth- or fifth-grade level in reading. Students with intellectual disabilities can make significant progress in lit- eracy programs that emphasize direct instruction (the direct teaching of letters, words, and syntactic, phonetic, and semantic analysis) in conjunction with written literature that is meaningful to the student or that draws on the student’s own writings.
A significant relationship exists between measured IQ and reading achievement: Students with intellectual disabilities read well below the level of students of the same age without disabilities. Although this relationship seems to suggest that reading instruction should be limited to higher-functioning students, a growing body of research indicates that students with more severe intellectual disabilities can learn academic skills. According to Browder and colleagues (2011), “The emerging research shows that students with severe disabilities can master academic skills. However, educators continue to have substantial work ahead to demonstrate effective practices for teaching them the wide range of academic skills typical of the general curriculum” (p. 493).
A functional reading program uses materials that are a part of a person’s normal routines in work, everyday living, and leisure activities. For example, functional reading involves words that are frequently encountered in the environment, such as those used on labels or signs in public places; words that warn of possible risks; and symbols such as the skull and crossbones to denote poisonous substances.
Students with intellectual disabilities also have challenges in developing math skills, but the majority of those with mild intellectual disabilities can learn basic ad- dition and subtraction. However, these children will have significant difficulty in the areas of mathematical reasoning and problem-solving tasks (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Hill, 2010). Math skills are taught most efficiently through the use of money concepts. For example, functional math involves activities such as learning to use a bank ac- count, shopping in a grocery store, or using a vending machine. The immediate practi- cal application motivates the students. Regardless of the approach used, arithmetic instruction must be concrete and practical to compensate for a child’s deficiencies in reasoning ability.
Self-Help Skills The development of self-help skills is critical to a child’s progression toward independence from caregivers. Self-help skills include eating, dressing, and main- taining personal hygiene. Eating skills range from finger feeding and drinking from a cup to using proper table behaviors (such as employing utensils and napkins), serving food, and following rules of etiquette. Dressing skills include buttoning, zipping, buckling, lacing, and tying. Personal hygiene skills are developed in an age-appropriate context. Basic hygiene skills include toileting, face and hand washing, bathing, tooth brushing, hair combing, and shampooing. Skills associated with adolescent and adult years include skin care, shaving, hair care, and the use of deodorants and cosmetics.
Social Skills Social skills training emphasizes the importance of learning problem- solving and decision-making skills and of using appropriate communication in a social context. Difficulty with problem solving and decision making have been barriers to the suc- cess of people with intellectual disabilities in community and school settings. Students with intellectual disabilities will not learn these skills through observation but must be specifi- cally taught how to solve problems.
Westling and Fox (2009) suggested several learning outcomes for students in the use of appropriate communication in a social context. They must be able to initiate and maintain a conversation (verbal, signed, or pictorial) while using appropriate social conventions and courtesies (e.g., staying on topic, not interrupting a speaker, and using appropriate body posture). These authors suggested a list of social skills that are important instructional targets for students with intellectual disabilities (see Figure 9.3).
Direct instruction Teaching academic subjects through precisely sequenced lessons involving drill, practice, and immediate feedback.
Standard 2 Learning Environments
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Establish eye contact. Make requests.
Establish appropriate proximity. Respond to requests.
Maintain appropriate body posture during conversation.
Ask for information.
Speak with appropriate volume, rate, and expression.
Provide information.
Maintain attention during exchange. Ask for clarification.
Initiate greetings. Respond to requests for clarification.
Respond to greetings. Extend social invitation.
Initiate partings. Deliver refusals.
Respond to partings. Respond to refusals.
Discriminate appropriate times to greet or part. Use social courtesies (please, thank you, apology).
Answer questions. Maintain topic.
Ask questions. Initiate a new topic.
SOURCE: From Westling, D., & Fox, L. (2009). Teaching students with severe disabilities. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Figure 9.3 Instructional Targets in Social Skills Training
Communication Skills The ability to communicate with others is an essential component of growth and development. Without communication, there can be no interac- tion. Communication systems for children with intellectual disabilities take three general forms: verbal language, augmentative communication (including sign language and language boards), and a combination of the verbal and augmentative approaches. The approach used depends on the child’s capability. A child who can develop the requisite skills for spoken language will have greatly enhanced everyday interactive skills. For a child unable to develop verbal skills as an effective means of communication, manual communication must be considered. Such children must develop some form of communica- tion that will facilitate inclusion with peers and family members throughout their lives. The use of computer-based, tablet-style devices appears to be making communication more accessible to students with limited speech (Kagohara et al., 2013). For some specific tips on effective ways to include people with intellectual disabilities from early childhood through the adult years, see the nearby Community Support for Lifelong Inclusion feature,
“People with Intellectual Disabilities.” Some students with intellectual disabilities benefit from the use of assistive technology
and communication aids. Assistive technology may involve a variety of communication approaches that aid people with intellectual disabilities who have limited speech ability. These approaches may be low-tech (a language board with pictures) or high-tech (a tablet with voice output). Regardless of the approach, a communication aid can be a valuable tool in helping people with intellectual disabilities communicate with others. For more information, see the nearby feature, “Assistive Technology for People with Intellectual Disabilities.”
Motor Skills The acquisition of motor skills is fundamental to the developmental pro- cess and a prerequisite to successful learning in other content areas, including self-help and social skills. Gross motor development involves general mobility, including the interaction of the body with the environment. Gross motor skills are developed in a sequence, ranging from movements that make balance possible to higher-order locomotor patterns. Locomotor
Assistive technology Devices such as computers, hearing aids, wheelchairs, and other equipment that help individ- uals adapt to the natural settings of home, school, and family.
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People with Intellectual Disabilities
COMMUNITY SUPPORT FOR LIFELONG INCLUSION
Early Childhood Years Tips for Families
● Promote family learning about the di- versity of all people in the context of understanding a child with intellectual differences.
● Create opportunities for friendships to develop between your child and children without disabilities, in pre- school and in family and neighbor- hood settings.
● Help facilitate your child’s opportu- nities and access to neighborhood preschools by actively participating in the education planning process and collaborating with professionals with multidisciplinary backgrounds (health care, social services, education, etc.).
● Become familiar with the individual- ized family service plan (IFSP) and how it can serve as a planning tool to support the inclusion of your child in preschool programs that involve stu- dents without disabilities.
Tips for General Education Preschool Teachers
● Focus on the child’s individual abilities first. Whatever labels have been placed on the child will have little to do with instructional needs.
● When teaching a child, focus on pre- senting each component of a task clearly while reducing outside stim- uli that may distract the child from learning.
● Begin with simple tasks, and move to more complex ones as the child mas- ters each skill.
● Verbally label stimuli, such as objects or people, as often as possible to pro- vide the child with both auditory and visual input.
● Provide a lot of practice in initial learn- ing phases, using short but frequent sessions to ensure that the child has mastered the skill before moving on to more complex tasks.
● Create successful experiences by re- warding correct responses to tasks as well as appropriate behavior with peers who are not disabled.
● Help young children with intellectual disabilities be able to transfer learn- ing from school to the home and neighborhood. Facilitate such trans- fer by providing information that is meaningful to the child and noting how the initial and transfer tasks are similar.
Tips for Preschool Personnel
● Support the inclusion of young chil- dren with intellectual disabilities in classrooms and programs.
● Collaborate with the team of multi- disciplinary professionals, including teachers, staff, related services pro- fessionals (such as speech and lan- guage pathologists), and volunteers as they attempt to create success experiences for the child in the pre- school setting.
● Integrate families as well as children into the preschool programs. Offer parents as many opportunities as pos- sible to be part of the program (e.g., ad- visory boards, volunteer experiences).
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Look for opportunities for young neighborhood children who are not disabled to interact during playtimes with a child who has an intellectual disability.
● Provide a supportive community en- vironment for the family of a young child who has an intellectual disabil- ity. Encourage the family, including the child, to participate in neighborhood activities (e.g., outings, barbecues, outdoor yard and street cleanups, crime watches).
● Try to understand how a young child with intellectual disabilities is similar rather than different to other children in the neighborhood. Focus on those similarities in your interactions with
other neighbors and children in your community.
Elementary Years Tips for Families
● Actively participate with the multidis- ciplinary team in the development of your son’s or daughter’s individualized education program (IEP). Through ac- tive participation, advocate for those goals that you would like to see on the IEP that will focus on your child’s devel- oping social interaction and communi- cation skills in natural settings (e.g., the general education classroom).
● To help facilitate your son’s or daugh- ter’s inclusion in the neighborhood elementary school, help the multidis- ciplinary team of professionals better understand the importance of inclu- sion with peers who are not disabled (e.g., riding on the same school bus, going to recess and lunch at the same time, participating in school-wide assemblies).
● Participate in as many school functions for parents (e.g., PTA, parent advisory groups, volunteering) as is reasonable, to connect your family to the main- stream of the school.
● Create opportunities for your child to make friends with same-age children without disabilities.
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● View children with intellectual dis- abilities as children, first and fore- most. Focus on their similarities to other children rather than on their differences.
● Recognize children with intellectual disabilities for their own accomplish- ments within the classroom, rather than comparing them to those of peers without disabilities.
● Employ cooperative learning strate- gies wherever possible to promote effective learning by all students. Use
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peers without disabilities as support for students with intellectual disabili- ties. This may include establishing peer–buddy programs or peer and cross-age tutoring.
● Consider all members of the class- room when you organize the physical envi ronment. Find ways to meet the individual needs of each child (e.g., establishing aisles that will accom- modate a wheelchair and organizing desks to facilitate tutoring on as- signed tasks).
Tips for School Personnel
● Integrate the multidisciplinary re- sources within the school to meet the needs of all children.
● Wherever possible, help general class- room teachers access the collaborative and multidisciplinary resources nec- essary to meet the needs of students with intellectual disabilities. Make available instructional materials and programs to whomever needs them, not just to those identified as being in special education.
● Help general and special education teachers develop peer–partner and support networks for students with intellectual disabilities.
● Promote the heterogeneous group- ing of students. Avoid clustering large numbers of students with intellectual disabilities in a single general educa- tion classroom. Integrate no more than two in each elementary classroom.
● Maintain the same schedules for stu- dents with intellectual disabilities as for all other students in the building. Recess, lunch, school assemblies, and bus arrival and departure schedules should be identical for all students.
● Create opportunities for the multidis- ciplinary personnel in the school to collaborate in the development and implementation of instructional pro- grams for individual children.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Support families who are seeking to have their child with intellectual dis- abilities educated with children who are not disabled. This will give chil- dren with intellectual disabilities more
opportunities for interacting with children who are not disabled, both in school and in the local community.
Secondary and Transition Years Tips for Families
● Create opportunities for your son or daughter to participate in activities that are of interest to him or her, be- yond the school day, with same-age peers who are not disabled, including high school clubs, sports, or just hang- ing out in the local mall.
● Promote opportunities for students from your son’s or daughter’s high school to visit your home. Help arrange get-togethers or parties involving stu- dents from the neighborhood and/or school.
● Become actively involved in the de- velopment of the individualized edu- cation and transition program. Explore with the high school’s team of advis- ers what should be done to assist your son or daughter in the transition from school to adult life.
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● Collaborate with the school’s multidisci- plinary team (special educators, related services personnel, administrators, par- aeducators) to adapt subject matter in your classroom (e.g., science, math, or physical education) to the individual needs of students with intellectual disabilities.
● Let students without disabilities know that students with intellectual dis- abilities belong in their classroom. The goals and activities of these students may be different from those of other students, but with support, students with intellectual disabilities will ben- efit from working with you and the other students in the class.
● Support students with intellectual disabilities in becoming involved in extracurricular activities. If you are the faculty sponsor of a club or organiza- tion, explore whether these students are interested and how they could get involved.
Tips for School Personnel
● Advocate for parents of high school– age students with intellectual disabili- ties to participate in the activities of the school (e.g., committees and PTA).
● Help facilitate parental collaboration in the IEP process during the high school years by helping the school’s multidisciplinary team value parental input that focuses on a desire to in- clude their child in the mainstream of the school. Parents will be more active when school personnel have general and positive contact with the family.
● Provide human and material support to high school special education or vocational teachers seeking to de- velop community-based instruction programs that focus on students learn- ing and applying skills in actual com- munity settings (e.g., grocery stores, malls, theaters, parks, and work sites).
Tips for Neighbors, Friends, and Potential Employers
● Work with the family and school per- sonnel to create opportunities for students with intellectual disabilities to participate in community activities (such as going to the movies, “hanging out” with peers without disabilities in the neighborhood mall, and going to high school sports events).
● As a potential employer, work with the high school to locate and establish com- munity-based employment-training sites for students with intellectual disabilities.
Adult Years Tips for Families
● Become aware of what life will be like for your son or daughter in the local community during the adult years. What formal supports (government- funded advocacy organizations) from various disciplines (such as health care and social services) and informal sup- ports are available in your community? What are the characteristics of adult service programs? Explore adult sup- port systems in the local community in the areas of supported living, employ- ment, and recreation and leisure.
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patterns are intended to move a person freely through the environment. Gross motor move- ments include controlling the head and neck, rolling, body righting, sitting, crawling, stand- ing, walking, running, jumping, and skipping.
Fine motor development requires more precision and steadiness than the skills devel- oped in the gross motor area. The development of fine motor skills, including reaching, grasping, and manipulating objects, is initially dependent on the ability of the child to visu- ally fix on an object and visually track a moving target. Coordination of the eye and hand is an integral factor in many skill areas, as well as in fine motor development. Eye–hand coordination is the basis of social and leisure activities and is essential to the development of the object-control skills required in employment.
Inclusion in School Historically, special education for students with intellectual dis- abilities meant segregated education. Today, however, the focus is on including these students in general education schools and classrooms. Some students with intellectual dis- abilities are included for only a part of the school day and attend only those general educa- tion classes that their individualized education program (IEP) teams consider consistent with their needs and functioning levels (such as physical education, industrial arts, or home economics). Other students with intellectual disabilities attend general education classes for all or the majority of the school day. For these students, special education consists primarily of services and supports intended to facilitate their opportunities and success in the general education classroom. Placement information from the U.S. Department of Education (2014) indicates that approximately 94 percent of students with intellectual disabilities between the ages of 6 and 21 were placed in general education schools for the entire day. Of these students, about 18 percent were served in a general education class for at least 80 percent of the time, and 45 percent spent more than half of their time outside the general education class. Inclusion in our schools opens doors for inclusion in the community.
Another placement option for students with disabilities is the special school. Special schools are defined as facilities exclusively for students with intellectual disabilities or other disabilities. Approximately 6 percent of students with intellectual disabilities at- tend public special schools, and less than one percent attend private special schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). In this era of inclusion, considerable controversy exists as to whether there is any justification for placing students with intellectual disabilities in special schools.
9-6c Adolescent Education and Transition to Adulthood The goals of an educational program for adolescents with intellectual disabilities are to increase personal independence, enhance opportunities for participation in the lo- cal community, prepare for employment, and facilitate a successful transition to the adult years.
Personal Independence and Participation in the Community The term independence refers to the development and application of skills that lead to greater self-sufficiency in daily personal life, including personal care, self-help, and appropriate
Tips for Neighbors, Friends, and Potential Employers
● Seek ways to become part of the com- munity support network for individu- als with intellectual disabilities. Be alert to ways in which these individuals can
become and remain actively involved in community employment, neighbor- hood recreational activities, and func- tions at a local house of worship.
● As potential employers in the commu- nity, seek information on employment
of people with intellectual disabilities. Find out about programs (e.g., sup- ported employment) that focus on arranging work for people with intel- lectual disabilities while meeting your needs as an employer.
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C H A P T E R 9 I N T E L L E C T U A L A N D D E V E L O P M E N TA L D I S A B I L I T I E S224
Assistive Technology for People with Intellectual Disabilities
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
a disability is using a computer, the onscreen messages should last long enough or provide enough wait time to allow a disabled person to consider whether to press a computer key. Or the time should be sufficient between making a phone call and pressing the numbers to complete the call using a rechargeable phone card as pay- ment. Because individuals with intel- lectual disabilities have a range of learning and processing abilities, it is difficult to develop assistive technol- ogy solutions that are appropriate for all skill levels.
Do Schools have to Provide Assistive Technology to Students Who Need It? IDEA requires that the need for as- sistive technology be considered for all students when developing indi- vidualized education programs. The intention of the special education law is this: If a student with disabili- ties needs technology to be able to learn, the school district will (1) evalu- ate the student’s technology needs; (2) acquire the necessary technology; (3) coordinate technology use with other therapies and interventions; and (4) provide training for the individual, the individual’s family, and the school staff in the effective use of technology. If a student’s individualized education program specifies that assistive tech- nology is needed for home use to en- sure appropriate education, the school must provide it. If the school purchases an assistive technology device for use by a student, the school owns it. The student cannot take it when moving to another school or when leaving school.
SOURCE: Adapted from “Technology for People with Intel- lectual Disabilities,” 2009, www.thearc.org.
How Do People with Intellectual Disabilities Use Technology? Communication. For ind ividuals who cannot communicate vocally, tech- nology can help them communicate. Augmentative and alternative com- munication (ACC) may involve technol- ogy ranging from low-tech message boards to computerized voice output communication aids and synthesized speech.
Mobility. Simple to sophisticated computer-controlled wheelchairs and mobility aids are available. Technology may be used to aid in finding directions, guiding users to destinations. Comput- erized cueing systems and robots have also been used to guide users with intellectual disabilities.
Environmental control. Assistive technology can help people with severe or multiple disabilities to control elec- trical appliances, operate audio/video equipment such as home entertain- ment systems, or perform basic tasks such as locking and unlocking doors.
Activities of daily living. Technology is assisting people with disabilities to successfully complete everyday tasks of self-care:
● Automated and computerized dining devices allow individuals who need assistance at mealtime to eat more independently.
● Audio prompting devices can as- sist people with memory difficulties to complete a task or to follow a se- quence of steps from start to finish in such activities as making a bed or tak- ing medication.
● Video-based instructional materials can help people learn functional life skills such as grocery shopping, writ- ing a check, paying the bills, or using the ATM.
Education. Technology is used in edu- cation to aid communication, support activities of daily living, and to enhance learning. Computer-assisted instruction can help in many areas, including word recognition, math, spelling, and even social skills. Computers have also been found to promote interaction with non- disabled peers.
Employment. Technology, such as video-assisted training, is being used for job training and job skill develop- ment and to teach complex skills for appropriate job behavior and social interaction. Prompting systems using digital recorders and computer-based prompting devices have been used to help workers stay on task. Computer- ized prompting systems can help peo- ple manage their time in scheduling job activities.
Sports and recreation. Toys can be adapted with switches and other tech- nologies to facilitate play for children. Computer or video games provide age-appropriate social opportunities and help children learn cognitive and eye–hand coordination skills. Specially designed Internet access software can help people with intellectual disabilities access the World Wide Web. Exercise and physical fitness can be supported by video-based technology.
What Barriers to Technology Use will People with Intellectual Disabilities Encounter? Even though it is the goal of most technology development efforts to incorporate the principles of univer- sal design, cognitive access is not carefully considered. Universal design ensures that all people may use tech- nology without adaptation. An exam- ple of cognitive access can be found in computer use—if someone with
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9 – 6 I N T E R V E N T I O N S A N D T R E AT M E N T S F O R I N T E L L E C T UA L D I S A B I L I T Y 225
leisure activities. Participation in the community includes access to programs, facilities (gro- cery stores, shopping malls, restaurants, theaters, and parks), and services that people without disabilities often take for granted. Adolescents with intellectual disabilities need opportunities for interaction with peers without disabilities (other than caregivers), access to community events, sustained social relationships, and involvement in choices that affect their lives. An illustration of the range of community services and supports that can facili- tate the transition of an adolescent with intellectual disabilities into the adult years is shown in Figure 9.4.
The ARC (2015) released a position statement that describes the types of supports that are needed to ensure that people who have intellectual disabilities have full and meaningful lives in the community. The statement addresses the rights for individuals with intellectual disabilities to have access to early intervention, and education and behavioral supports that offer opportunities for choice and social integration. The statement continues to describe the rights for this groups of people to have the same opportunities as other citizens to enjoy full lives in their community, including access to employment, health care, housing, transportation, and services provided for seniors. The right to personal choices around sexuality and spirituality are also listed as essential for full, independent community lives.
Employment Preparation Work is a crucial measure of any person’s success during adulthood, providing the primary opportunity for social interaction, a basis for per- sonal identity and status, and a chance to contribute to the community. These needs are basic to adults who have intellectual disabilities, just as they are for their peers without disabilities.
Fortunately, employment training for students with intellectual disabilities is shifting from the isolation and “getting ready” orientation of a sheltered workshop to authentic community employment. Goals and objectives are developed according to the demands
Standard 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Sheltered workshop A segregated vocational training and employment setting for people with disabilities.
Community Supports Information and referral
Early identification and treatment Health care
Protective services
Public awareness
Advocacy
Family Supports Family crisis
Family education and training
Family counseling
Respite care
Leisure Supports Therapeutic recreation
Sports and games
Access to community events
Fitness
Outdoor recreation
Entertainment
Community Support
Needs
Employment Supports
Vocational counseling referral, job placement, follow-up
Training
Supported employment
Supported Living
Group homes
Foster homes
Individual house
Apartment living
Figure 9.4 Categories of Supports Needed During the Adult Years
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of the community work setting and the functioning level of the individual. The focus is on helping each person learn and apply skills in a job setting while receiving the support necessary to succeed. Providing ongoing assis- tance to the individual on the job is the basis of an approach known as supported employment. Supported employment is work in an inclusive setting for individuals with disabili- ties (including those with intellectual disabilities) who are expected to need
continuous support services and for whom competitive employment has traditionally not been possible.
Research indicates that people with intellectual disabilities can work in community employment if adequate training and support are provided (Crockett & Hardman, 2009; Siperstein, Heyman, & Stokes, 2014; Wehman, 2011). Following are some suggested guide- lines in developing a comprehensive employment-training program for students with intel- lectual disabilities:
● Students should have the opportunity to make informed choices about what jobs they want to do and where they want to work.
● Students should receive employment training in community settings prior to gradu- ation from high school.
Lucy
CASE STUDY ON EMBRACING DIVERSITY
When Lucy was 4 years old, she had a men- ingitis incident that resulted in a mild intel- lectual disability. Now, Lucy is an 18-year- old student at Central Valley High School. School has never been easy for Lucy, but high school has been particularly hard. For the last three years, she bounced between her dad’s home on a rancheria 60 miles away and her mom’s apart- ment. She attended different schools depending on which parent she was living with. Earlier this year, following her mother’s death, Lucy told the school psychologist that she didn’t feel safe liv- ing with her father. She announced that she would be living with friends as she finishes high school at CVHS.
Lucy’s schedule includes remedial math and English classes, culinary class, jewelry making, theater, and a career development course. She has ex- pressed an interest in working with ani- mals and is currently exploring jobs as
a veterinarian assistant. Ms. Alvarez, the special education teacher at CVHS who manages Lucy’s progress, is concerned about several things. Following a dis- cussion with the school social worker, Ms. Alvarez asked Lucy about her living arrangements. Lucy shared that she is living in a homeless shelter for a short time, while she figures out what to do next. Lucy told Ms. Alvarez that she was considering dropping out of school be- cause it is too hard to get to school. She has attempted to pass the high school exit exam twice, failing the math sec- tion both times by a very narrow mar- gin. She is also concerned that she does not have a parent or advocate to attend her upcoming transition IEP meeting.
Ms. Alvarez is committed to helping Lucy find sustainable living arrange- ments, pass the exit exam, and com- plete high school with a diploma. She assures Lucy that as an 18-year-old, she
can attend and sign off on her own IEP. Next, she gathers together the transi- tion IEP team, including Lucy, her the- ater teacher, the assistant principal, the school social worker, and a local representative for the homeless youth project. Together, they develop a plan including a coordinated set of activities and support services that will lead Lucy to achieving the post-school goals she envisioned for herself!
Application Questions 1. Why is Lucy able to represent herself at her transition IEP meeting?
2. Why is it so important to include a broad range of people (teachers, ad- ministrators, social works, community advocates) on Lucy’s transition plan- ning meeting?
3. What are some coordinated activi- ties that would support Lucy in moving toward her adult goals?
Ro bi
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Photo 9.5 For adolescents with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities, employment preparation during high school is shifting away from segregated sheltered workshops to supported employment in inclusive community settings.
Supported employment Jobs for individuals with severely disabilities who will need continuous support, and for whom competitive jobs have traditionally not been possible.
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227C H A P T E R R E V I E W
● Employment training should focus on work opportunities present in the local area where individuals currently live.
● The focus of the employment training should be on specific job training as students approach graduation.
● Collaboration between the school and adult service agencies must be part of an employment-training program (Drew & Hardman, 2007).
Looking Toward a Bright Future Historically, services for people with intellectual disabilities have been primarily fo- cused on isolating and caring for individuals rather than facilitating their access and participation in school, family, and community life. With the passage of civil rights and federal education legislation in the late 20th century, the promise of autonomy, choice, and independence for people with intellectual disabilities has become a reality for some but remains a dream for others. Even today, more than 100,000 people with intellectual and developmental disabilities remain institutionalized in the United States. Others, although not institutionalized, have little control over where, with whom, and how they live in their communities (Lakin, 2005). And then there are the Troy Daniels of this world. Troy, a young man with Down syndrome who uses a wheelchair, was selected to stand and deliver the senior speech before his graduating class at Northfield High School in Vermont. Here is what Troy had to say to friends, family, and neighbors on that special day:
Not long ago people with disabilities could not go to school with other kids; they had to go to special schools. They could not have real friends; they call people like me “retard.” That breaks my heart.… The law says that I can come to school but no law can make me have friends. But then some kids started to think that I was okay, first just one or two kids were nice to me.… Others started to hang out with me and they found out we could be friends. I cared about them and they cared about me.… I want all people to know and see that these students I call my friends are the real teachers of life.
Standard 2 Learning Environments
9-1 Describe how the lives of people with intellec- tual disabilities have changed since the advent of IDEA.
● As more children with intellectual disabilities enter school, developmental delays have become more apparent. Prior to the passage of IDEA, it was common for the cognitive and so- cial differences of children with intellectual disabilities to be attributed to immaturity. Today, educators recognize the need for specialized services to support a child’s development in the natural settings of school, neighborhood, and home.
● People with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities have challenges that often transcend the classroom. Today, we recognize that these children are able to learn and use adaptive skills that allow independence, with varying levels of support.
● Although dependent upon others for basic life needs, people with profound intellectual disabilities benefit from education and treatment beyond routine care and maintenance. The ex- tent of profound disabilities is one reason why this group of chil- dren was excluded from the public schools prior to the passage of IDEA. Exclusion was often justified on the basis that schools did not have the resources, facilities, or trained professionals to deal with the needs of these students.
9-2 Explain the various definitions and classifica- tions of intellectual disabilities.
● Definition ● There are significant limitations in intellectual abilities. ● There are significant limitations in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills.
Chapter Review
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C H A P T E R 9 I N T E L L E C T U A L A N D D E V E L O P M E N TA L D I S A B I L I T I E S228
● Disability originates before the age of 18. ● The severity of the condition is tempered by the individual’s participation, interactions, and social roles within the com- munity; by her or his overall physical and mental health; and by the environmental context.
● Classifications systems ● Severity of the condition may be described in terms of mild, moderate, severe, or profound intellectual disabilities.
● Medical descriptors classify intellectual disabilities on the ba- sis of the origin of the condition (e.g., infection, intoxication, trauma, chromosomal abnormality).
● Type and extent of support needed categorizes people with intellectual disabilities as having intermittent, limited, ex- tensive, or pervasive needs for support to function in natural settings.
9-3 Describe the characteristics and prevalence of children and youth with intellectual disabilities.
● Intellectual characteristics may include learning and memory defi- ciencies, difficulties with metacognition, and generalization skills.
● Self-regulation characteristics include difficulty in mediating or regulating behavior.
● Adaptive skill characteristics may include difficulties in coping with the demands of the environment, developing interper- sonal relationships, developing language skills, and taking care of personal needs.
● The prevalence of intellectual disabilities worldwide and across all ages is estimated at one percent of the total population.
● There are approximately 447,000 students between the ages of 6 and 21 labeled as having intellectual disabilities and receiv- ing service under IDEA. Approximately 7 percent of all students with disabilities between the ages of 6 and 21 have intellectual disabilities.
● Overall, students with intellectual disabilities constitute about 0.88 percent of the total school population.
9-4 List the causes and risk factors associated with intellectual disabilities.
● Intellectual disabilities are the result of multiple causes, some known, and many unknown. Genetic conditions, problems
during pregnancy, problems at birth, problems after birth, and poverty-related deprivation can lead to intellectual disabilities.
9-5 Describe the assessment procedures used to identify intellectual disabilities in children and youth.
● Three separate factors need to be considered to determine if an individual has an intellectual disability. A test of intellectual functioning (IQ test) must reveal a score of 70 to 75 or lower. A formal assessment of adaptive behavior must be completed and indicate a significant delay. Finally, the onset of the disability must occur prior to the age of 18.
9-6 Describe the different interventions for chil- dren and youth with intellectual disabilities from early childhood through adulthood.
● Inclusive education should be a primary focus across the full range of the education system. Regardless of the severity of their condition, students with intellectual disabilities benefit from placement in general education environments where op- portunities for inclusion with nondisabled peers are systemati- cally planned and implemented.
● Early intervention programs focus on the development of com- munication skills, social interaction, and readiness for formal instruction.
● Programs for elementary-age children with intellectual disabili- ties balance the curriculum between academics and functional skills. Focus in often on:
● Academic skills ● Self-help skills ● Social skills ● Communication skills ● Motor development skills
● Programs for adolescents with intellectual disabilities focus on transition to adulthood by placing emphasis on:
● Increasing the individual’s personal independence ● Enhancing opportunities for participation in the local community
● Preparing for employment ● Facilitating a successful transition to the adult years
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Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Standards to Accompany Chapter 9
If you are thinking about a career in special education, you should know that many states use national standards developed by the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) to assess a teacher candidate’s knowledge and skills for working with students with disabilities. See a complete listing of the seven CEC Content Standards on the inside cover of this text.
1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
2 Learning Environments 4 Assessment 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Mastery Activities and Assignments To master the content within this chapter, complete the following activities and assignments: 1. Complete a written test of the chapter’s content. If your
instructor requires a written test of your content knowl- edge for this chapter, keep a copy for your portfolio.
2. Review the Case Study on Embracing Diversity, “Lucy,” and respond in writing to the Application Questions.
Keep a copy of the Case Study and your written response for your portfolio.
3. Participate in a community service learning activity. Community service is a valuable way to enhance your learning experience. Develop a reflective journal of the service learning experience for your portfolio.
C H A P T E R R E V I E W
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CHAPTER 10
Communication Disorders
Learning Objectives After you complete this chapter, you will be able to:
10-1 Describe how the lives of people with communication disorders have changed since the advent of IDEA.
10-2 Describe the primary components of typical communication development.
10-3 Describe language disorders, their prevalence, causation, identification, and related interventions.
10-4 Describe speech sound disorder, its prevalence, causation, identification, and related interventions.
10-5 Describe child onset fluency disorder, its prevalence, causation, identification, and related interventions.
10-6 Describe social (pragmatic) communication disorder, its prevalence, causation, identification, and related interventions.
10-7 Describe voice and resonance disorders, their prevalence, causation, identification, and related interventions.
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SNAPSHOT
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SNAPSHOT Trinity
Stuttering Is Like a Car Going Too Fast Trinity, 7th grade, Henrico, Virginia
My stuttering is like a car going too fast. When the car goes too fast it can crash. The car is my speech. When I speak fast I stutter. My stutter is like
limit and traffic signals remind the driver to slow down like my therapist gives me signs and signals to slow down.
SOURCE: www.stutteringhelp.org/drawings-and -letters-kids.
10-1 A Changing Era in the Lives of People with Communication Disorders Evidence of communication disorders has existed for thousands of years. One of the first recognized individuals in written history who appears to have had a communication disor- der as well as therapy to correct the condition was Demosthenes (384–322 BCE), a popular Greek orator, politician, and speechwriter. It is believed Demosthenes was challenged with a fluency disorder (stuttering), which he “overcame and rendered more distinct by speak- ing with pebbles in his mouth; his voice he disciplined by declaiming and reciting speeches or verses when he was out of breath, while running or going up steep places; and that in his house he had a large looking-glass, before which he would stand and go through his exercises” (Plutarch, 75).
Much has changed in the field of communication disorders since the time of the ancient Greeks, both in how we view such disorders and how we assess and treat them. With the advent of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1975, students with communication disorders now have rights to be assessed by a multidisciplinary team of trained professionals and, for those eligible, to receive free and appropriate services indi- vidualized to meet their needs. IDEA’s primary purpose is to improve early intervention and to improve educational attainment and functional outcomes for children with disabili- ties, including those with communication disorders (U.S. Department of Education, 2014).
Communication is one of the most frequent activities we undertake. Think about how often you communicate using various modalities each day. You may order food in a res- taurant, thank a stranger for helping you, send a text message to a friend, ask a question in class, email your instructor, smile at a person across the room, and give directions to someone who is lost, all within a short period of time. Our lives revolve around commu- nication in many crucial ways, but communication rarely gets much attention unless we have a problem with it. Because our society places such an emphasis on interpersonal communication, the challenges people with communication disorders face are sometimes daunting and have a significant impact on their behavior. This chapter will focus on the broad and complex field of communication development, communication disorders, and their impact on children and youth.
10-2 Communication Development Communication is a relational, nonlinear, transactional process between a sender and a re- ceiver of a message (Dyches, Carter, & Prater, 2012). See Figure 10.1 for a conceptual model of this communication process. The message may be an exchange of ideas, opinions, facts, or simply social etiquette conventions (e.g., please, thank you, excuse me). The medium is
Standard 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
the car crashing. My brain is like the driver of the car. The driver goes to driving school to learn how to drive. I go to therapy to help my brain learn how to use speech rules. When people tell me to go slow it is like the police giving a ticket to the driver to slow down. The speed
10 -2 CO M M U N I C AT I O N D E V E L O P M E N T
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C H A P T E R 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N D I S O R D E R S232
Figure 10.1 A Conceptual Model of the Communication Process
Sender Encoder
Writer Speaker
Written Encoding Decoding
Message
Spoken
Text Receiver Decoder Reader Listener
often oral (e.g., speech, song, sounds), written (e.g., text messages, emails, books, handwrit- ten notes), manual (e.g., gestures, sign language), or visual (e.g., photographs, drawings). This chapter will focus primarily on oral communication.
Effective communication is very complex. Think about what must happen to have clear understanding in any communicative action. First, a “message is intended, composed, sent, received, detected, and recognized as a message, opened, processed, understood, and inter- preted, with an externally observable response” (Steinfatt, 2009, p. 299). Many elements are critical for effective communication: deliberate behavioral cues, private and public cues, message content and form, coding, and decoding among the communication partners. At any point in the communicative exchange, a communication breakdown may occur. For example, during an exchange between a teacher and a parent of one of her students, “The message may be received but not opened (e.g., the parent heard you but was not really listening); the message may be received, recognized as a message, but not processed (e.g., the parent acknowledges you said something by saying, “Uh-huh,” but does not understand what you have said); and so forth” (Dyches et al., 2012, p. 19).
Consider the childhood game of “Telephone,” where all participants sit in a circle and the leader whispers a message to the person to her left, who receives this message and relays it to the person on his left, and so forth, until they reach the end of the circle. Oftentimes, the original message is distorted, either because a sender did not clearly communicate the message, or because a receiver did not clearly understand the message. In either case, the message was not communicated accurately. What may have started out as “Harry Potter wears very cool glasses” can turn out to be “Every hothead tears shoes and smashes!” Although this game is fun to play, in reality, when one’s message is not communicated clearly, frustration, confusion, and despair may abound. Therefore, it is important that school professionals learn the characteristics of communication disorders so children at risk of having these difficulties can be identified early, assessed, and served appropriately.
10-2a Expressive and Receptive Language Because communication involves at least two partners, both need skills to send as well as to receive messages. These two primary components of communication are called expressive and receptive language.
Expressive language involves many skills that help an individual communicate a message to another. In oral expression, the communicator needs to be able to formulate a thought, have the motor skills to produce the sounds of the words, phrases, and sentences related to that thought, speak the message using correct form, and use appropriate intona- tion, gestures, and other communicative acts to help the receiver comprehend the message. Other forms of expressive communication include orthography (written words), Braille, sign language, and pictures, among others.
Receptive language involves many skills that help the receiver of a message to both receive and understand the message that is sent. With oral communication, the receiver must attend to the speaker, hear what the speaker is saying, and comprehend the words, phrases, and sentences of the speaker. The receiver must also understand the intonation, gestures, and other communicative acts of the speaker to more accurately receive the message that was intended by the communicative partner. Similar to expressive language, for the receiver to understand other forms of communication such as Braille, sign language, and traditional
Expressive language Skills that help an individual communicate a message to another.
Receptive language Skills that help the receiver of a message to both receive and understand the message that is sent.
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Syntax The rules governing sentence structure, the way sequences of words are combined into phrases and sentences.
Grammar A combination of syntax and morphology.
orthography, he must know the language in which the message is sent. For example, if a per- son writes a message to you in Arabic, but you do not have the language skills or resources to interpret the message, there is a communication breakdown between you and the speaker.
10-2b Speech and Language Two highly interrelated components of communication are speech and language; however, although they are related, they are not the same thing (see Figure 10.2). Speech is the physi- cal production of sounds that take the form of words and is one means of expressing lan- guage. Language represents a symbolic, rule-based system that gives meaning to the things we speak, write, read, and understand. It is possible to have language without speech, such as sign language used by people with hearing impairments, and speech without language, such as some patients with certain types of aphasia who produce speech without meaning.
Language focuses on three primary aspects: form, content, and use (when and why we say something, or pragmatics). Each of these will be described.
Language Form Language form, or how we say something, is comprised of phonology, morphology, and syntax. Phonology is the system of speech sounds that an individual utters—that is, rules regarding how sounds can be used and combined (Pfeiffer & Adkins, 2012). For example, the word cat has three phonemes, C-A-T. Morphology is concerned with the form and internal structure of words—that is, the trans- formations of words in terms of areas such as tense (e.g., present to past tense), number (singular to plural), and so on. When we add an s to cat, we have produced the plural form, cats, with two morphemes, or units of meaning: the concept of cat and the concept of plural. Such transformations involve prefixes, suffixes, and inflec- tions (Owens, 2008; Plante & Beeson, 2013). Syntax involves the rules governing sentence structure, the ways in which words are combined into phrases and sentences. For example, the sentence “Will you help Sheyenne?” changes in meaning when the order of only two words is changed to “You will help Sheyenne.”
A combination of syntax and morphology constitutes grammar. For example, instead of saying, “We were at the mall,” Colton says, “Me and him was to the mall,” which is grammatically incorrect because of the pronoun, prepositional, and subject-verb agreement
Photo 10.1 Language can exist without speech and not all speech includes language. Spoken language is one outcome of typical human development.
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Speech The physical production of sounds that take the form of words and is one means of expressing language.
Language A symbolic, rule-based system that gives meaning to the things we speak, write, read, and understand.
Phonology The system of speech sounds that an individual utters.
Morphology The form and internal structure of words.
Figure 10.2 A Conceptual Model of Communication, Language, and Speech
Speech without language
(e.g., a parrot’s sounds)
SpeechLanguage
Language expressed through speech and through other means
(e.g., manual sign language, written communication)
Spoken Language
Language can exist without speech (left), and not all speech constitutes language (right), but spoken language (center) is one outcome of typical human development. Communication is the broad umbrella concept that includes speech and language. Although communication can be achieved without these components, it is greatly enhanced by them.
10 -2 CO M M U N I C AT I O N D E V E L O P M E N T
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C H A P T E R 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N D I S O R D E R S234
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Semantics The understanding of language, the component most directly concerned with meaning.
Pragmatics A component of language that represents the rules that govern the reason(s) for communicating.
errors. However, young children learn- ing their native language often do not follow standard grammatical rules. It is important to note that dialects based upon regional speech patterns, social class, and ethnic groups may have dif- ferent grammatical conventions, and are not considered language disorders.
Language Content Language content includes the “what” of the com- munication message, its semantics, or understanding the meaning of language. Semantics addresses whether the speak- er’s intended message is conveyed by
the words in an age-appropriate manner. For example, the sentence “The tree ate the color four” is syntactically correct, but it has no meaning because trees do not eat and, even if they could, they cannot eat something that does not exist (the color four).
Language Use Language use, or pragmatics, represents how language is used in social situations. Pragmatics can be illustrated by the fact that teachers talk differently de- pending on whether they are instructing students, making a point in a faculty meeting, or chatting at a party. Pragmatics includes processes such as turn taking, and initiating, main- taining, and ending conversations.
In the vast percentage of cases, children develop speech and language normally, without significant delays or disruptions to the process. Understanding the typical developmental process helps school professionals and others identify and serve students whose speech and language characteristics differ from the norm and therefore interfere with effective communication.
10-2c Speech and Language Development Young children normally advance through several stages in acquiring language, from bab- bling, using words, stringing words together, to expressing their own thoughts in relatively complex sentences. An infant’s initial verbal output is primarily limited to crying and, hence, is usually associated with discomfort (from hunger, pain, or being soiled or wet). Before long (around 2 months), babies begin to cry and to coo vocally, expressing reactions to pleasure as well as discomfort. At about 4 to 6 months of age, they begin to babble, which involves making some consonant and vowel sounds. At this point, babies often make sounds re- peatedly when they are alone, seemingly experimenting with their sound-making abilities and not necessarily trying to communicate with anyone (Fogle, 2013; Owens, 2008). They may also babble when their parents or others are playing with or otherwise caring for them.
A baby’s first word is a momentous, long-anticipated event. In fact, eager parents often interpret as “words” sounds that probably have no meaning to the child. What usually happens is that the baby begins to string together sounds that occasionally resemble words. To the parents’ delight, these sounds frequently include utterances such as “Da-Da” and
“Ma-Ma,” which, of course, are echoed, repeated, and reinforced greatly by the parents. As the baby actually begins to listen to the speech of adults, exchanges or “conversations” seem to occur, where the baby responds by saying “Da-Da” when a parent says that sound. Although this type of interchange sounds like a conversation, the child’s vocal produc- tions may be understood only by those close to him or her (such as parents or siblings); people other than immediate family members may not be able to interpret their meaning. The baby also begins to use different tones and vocal intensity, which makes his or her vocalizations vaguely resemble adult speech. The interactions between babies and their parents are critical for enhancing babies’ developing speech and language. Parents often provide a great deal of reinforcement, such as praise in excited tones, or hugs, for word approximations. They also provide stimulus sounds and words for the baby to mimic, giv- ing the baby considerable practice.
Photo 10.2 Language is made up of several components, such as phonology, syntax, morphology, semantics, and pragmatics. These will vary as the children mature and grow in their ability to communicate, and as they learn from interacting with others.
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10 -2 CO M M U N I C AT I O N D E V E L O P M E N T 235
The timing of a baby’s actual first word is open to interpretation, although it usually happens between 12 and 18 months (Tager-Flusberg et al., 2009). These words often in- volve echoing (repeating what has been heard) or mimicking responses based on verbal- izations of those nearby. At first the words may have little or no meaning, although they soon become attached to people or objects in the child’s immediate environment, such as daddy, mommy, or milk. Before long, these words begin to have more perceptible intent, as the child uses them for requests and as a means of pleasing parents. Strings of two and three words that resemble sentences typically begin between 18 and 30 months of age (Tager-Flusberg et al., 2009). At this stage, meaning is usually unmistakable because the child can clearly indicate that he or she wants something. The child uses fairly accurate syntax, with word order generally consisting of subject-verb-object.
Most children with normally developing language are able to use all the basic syntac- tical structures by 30 to 48 months (Tager-Flusberg et al., 2009). By 5 years, they have progressed to using six-word sentences, on the average. Children who are developing language at a normal pace articulate nearly all speech sounds correctly, and in context, somewhere between 4 and 8 years of age. These illustrations are couched in terms of when children produce language—that is, in terms of expressive language development. How- ever, research indicates that children’s receptive skills precede their abilities to express language (Mayor & Plunkett, 2014). Thus, children are able to understand a great deal more than they can express. Most children show some understanding of language as early as 6 to 9 months, often responding first to commands such as “no-no” and their names (Vinson, 2012; Williams, 2011).
Variable age ranges are used for each milestone in outlining normal language develop- ment, some with rather broad approximations. Several factors contribute to this variability. For one thing, even children who are developing normally exhibit substantial differences in their rates of development. Some variations are due to a child’s general health and vitality, others to inheritance, and still others to environmental influences, such as the amount and type of interaction with parents and siblings (Phillips & Lowenstein, 2012; Vinson, 2012). Also, age ranges become wider in more advanced stages of development. Therefore, observation of when receptive and expressive language first occurs is perhaps less accurate. Considerable variability also occurs with abnormal language and speaking ability. In some cases, the same factors that contribute to variability in normal language are considered disorders if they result in extreme performance deviations. In other cases, the definitions differ and characteristics vary among people—the same variability we have encountered with other disorders.
When a child speaks like a much younger person, she may have a speech delay. For youngsters with a speech delay, the development follows a normal pattern, but is substan- tially slower than in most children of the same age. From a developmental point of view, this problem involves both delayed speech and language development.
Young children can typically communicate, at least to some degree, before they learn verbal behaviors. They use gestures, gazing or eye contact, facial expressions, other physi- cal movements, and nonspeech vocalizations, such as grunts or squeals. This early devel- opment illustrates the relationship among communication, language, and speech.
Very young children with delayed speech often have few or no verbalizations that can be interpreted as conventional speech at a period of time when speech is expected. Some communicate solely through physical gestures. Others may use a combination of gestures and vocal sounds that are not approximations of words. Although some may speak, but in a very limited manner, perhaps using single words (typically nouns without auxiliary words, such as “ball” instead of “my ball”), they often have fewer syllables per word, or primitive sentences like “Want ball” rather than “I want the ball” (Kaderavek, 2011). Such communication is normal for infants and toddlers, but it is abnormal for children beyond the age when most have at least a partially fluent speech (Weber-Fox & Hampton, 2008).
Because there are several forms of delayed speech, the causes of these problems also vary greatly. For example, partial or complete hearing loss may seriously limit an indi- vidual’s sensory experience and, hence, cause serious delays in speech development (e.g., Owens, 2011; Radziewicz & Antonellis, 2009). For those with normal hearing, the broader environment may also contribute to delayed speech (e.g., Bernstein & Levy, 2009). For
Delayed speech A deficit in speaking proficiency whereby the individual speaks like someone much younger.
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C H A P T E R 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N D I S O R D E R S236
example, in some children’s homes, there is minimal conversation, little chance for the child to speak, and, thus, little opportunity to learn and engage in speech. Also, related language experiences such as reading to young children may be limited or totally absent. Parental negativism, or conflicts between parents’ expectations and a child’s ability to perform, may also contribute to speech delays (Bernstein & Levy, 2009; Owens, 2010). Other developmental conditions, such as cerebral palsy, autism, intellectual disabilities, emotional disturbance, or brain injuries may also contribute to delayed speech (e.g., Drew & Hardman, 2007; Froemling, Grice, & Skinner, 2011).
Treatment approaches for delayed speech teach the child appropriate speaking profi- ciency for his or her age level. When physiological conditions are the cause of the delayed speech (e.g., hearing impairments), then specific treatments such as surgery or hear- ing aids must be considered (Owens, 2010; Radziewicz & Antonellis, 2009). However, for many cases, treatment is likely to focus on the basic principles of learned behavior where the stimulus and reinforcement patterns that are contributing to delayed speech are changed so that appropriate speaking behaviors can be learned, actively practiced, and reinforced (Froemling, Grice, & Skinner, 2011). Some success has been achieved through direct instruction aimed at increasing spontaneous speech. Such instruction emphasizes positive reinforcement of speaking to shape the child’s behavior in the direc- tion of more normal speech. All interventions should involve the collaborative efforts of speech-language pathologists (SLPs), teachers, and parents to focus on modifying and enhancing the child’s speech and the communication environments (Tiegerman-Farber, 2009; Weiss, 2009).
Although speech delays are concerns for parents and professionals, they are not consid- ered to be disorders. In the field of speech-language pathology, communication disorders are categorized into nine areas, referred to as the “Big Nine” (American Speech-Language- Hearing Association [ASHA], 2015a) and include: articulation, fluency, voice and reso- nance, receptive and expressive language, hearing, swallowing, cognitive assessments of communication (e.g., attention, memory), social aspects of communication (e.g., challeng- ing behavior, ineffective social skills), and communication modalities (e.g., oral, manual, assistive technology).
For the purposes of this chapter, communication disorders are categorized according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and generally comprise the “Big Nine.” These categories include five distinct disorders. Voice and resonance disorders are also included in this chapter, although they are not considered to be mental or developmental disorders; rather, they result from physiological problems. The disorders discussed in this chapter include the following:
1. Language disorder,
2. Speech sound disorder (articulation),
3. Child onset fluency disorder (stuttering),
4. Social (pragmatic) communication disorder, and
5. Voice and resonance disorders.
This chapter will discuss these five communication disorders, including their definitions; characteristics and prevalence; causes and risk factors; identification and assessment pro- cesses; and interventions and treatments. Disorders that require highly specialized training to assess and treat (e.g., swallowing disorders, cognitive assessments of communication) are not covered, and communication disorders related to hearing impairments are addressed in Chapter 13 of this text. Furthermore, this chapter does not cover selective mutism, as it is considered to be emotionally based rather than developmentally based.
10-3 Language Disorders This section presents information related to language disorders, including their definitions and classifications, characteristics and prevalence, causes and risk factors, identification and assessment, and finally, interventions and treatments.
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10 – 3 L A N G UAG E D I S O R D E R S 237
10-3a Definitions and Classifications of Language Disorders The diagnostic criteria for individuals with a language disorder include persistent chal- lenges in acquiring and using language with various modalities (e.g., spoken, written, sign language) because of deficits in comprehension or production. These difficulties with language are substantially and measurably below age expectations (American Psychologi- cal Association, 2013). Stated simply, language disorders represent significant difficulties in one’s ability to understand or express ideas in his or her native communication system.
In public schools, however, professionals use the classification system provided by the federal government, according to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The classification for students with communication disorders under IDEA is “Speech or Language Impairment” (SLI) and generally means a communication disorder such as impaired articulation, language impair- ment, stuttering, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a student’s edu- cational performance. Students with the communication disorders discussed in this chapter are likely to be considered eligible for speech-language therapy and/or other services under the classi- fication of “Speech Language Impair- ment,” if the multidisciplinary team determines this is appropriate.
10-3b Characteristics and Prevalence of Language Disorders The terminology applied to the processes involved in language, and to disorders in those processes, varies widely. In this chapter, we will discuss three language disorders: expres- sive language disorders, receptive language disorders, and aphasia.
Individuals who experience difficulty in language production, or formulating and us- ing spoken or written language, may have an expressive language disorder. Some have limited vocabularies and use the same array of words regardless of the situation. Expres- sive language disorders may appear as immature speech, often resulting in interaction difficulties (Freed, 2012).
People with receptive language disorders have difficulty comprehending what others say. In many cases, receptive language problems in very young children are noticed when they do not follow an adult’s instructions. These children may seem inattentive, may be very slow to respond, and process only part of what is being said to them (Pfeiffer & Adkins, 2012).
It is not uncommon for receptive language problems to appear in students with specific learning disabilities (Fogle, 2013). Such language deficits contribute significantly to their problems with academic performance as well as their social skills. Receptive language disorders appear as high-risk indicators of other disabilities, especially emotional and behavioral disorders.
Individuals with mixed receptive and expressive language disorders experience de- lays in comprehending and using the rules related to combining elements of words. For example, a child might not use the or a correctly, use verb tenses incorrectly (e.g., “he runned”), or use third-person singular verbs incorrectly (e.g., “He want”). They also have difficulty in formulating their own questions and in inferring meaning from what someone says to them (Boyle, McCartney, O’Hare, & Law, 2010).
Aphasia involves a loss of the ability to speak or comprehend language. It can affect all language modalities (e.g., speech, comprehension, writing, reading). Aphasia may be found both during childhood and in the adult years. The term developmental aphasia has been used widely for children; however, these children are also referred to as having an expressive language disorder. Regardless of the label, children with developmental aphasia struggle to acquire and use words to express their needs and wants to others.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Expressive language disorders Serious difficulties in producing language.
Receptive language disorders Serious difficulties in comprehending what others say.
Mixed receptive and expressive language disorders Serious difficulties in comprehending and using the rules related to combining elements of words.
Aphasia An acquired language disorder caused by brain damage and characterized by complete or partial impairment of language comprehension, formulation, and use.
Developmental aphasia A term that has been used widely for children; these children are also referred to as having an expressive language disorder.
Photo 10.3 Interactions between individuals are complex and may reflect language maturation challenges in the child.
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C H A P T E R 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N D I S O R D E R S238
Because communication disorders are comprised of many types of impairments, es- timating prevalence is difficult. However, national data indicates that 18.2 percent of all children (ages 6 to 21) served in programs for those with disabilities are categorized as having speech or language impairments. It must be remembered, however, that only ap- proximately 12 percent of all U.S. children K through 12 are served in programs for students with disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, 2014).
Also, of children between ages 3 to 5 being treated under IDEA, almost half (44.7 percent) are served for speech and language impairments (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). These figures do not deviate greatly from other estimates, although some data have sug- gested substantial geographical differences (e.g., significantly higher percentages in some areas of California than in parts of the Midwest). Speech and language impairments are the second most frequently occurring disability (next to specific learning disabilities) to receive special services (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). Speech and language disorders are identified in more children in kindergarten through the middle grades, but decline as age increases.
Obviously, students with speech and language disorders that do not significantly im- pact their progress in the general curriculum are not eligible for specialized educational services. It may be possible for some of these students to receive accommodations with a 504 plan, or they may receive privately funded services, such as speech therapy paid for by the students’ parents. Yet other students may receive no services at all, with the hope that the speech disorder will correct itself with time. The prevalence of language delays in children ages 2 to 7 ranges from 2.3 to 19 percent, and these children often have difficulty with attention, reading, writing, and socialization (McLaughlin, 2011).
10-3c Causes and Risk Factors of Language Disorders Many physiological problems may cause language difficulties. Neurological damage that may affect language functioning may occur prenatally, during birth, or any time throughout life (Williams, 2011). For example, language problems may result from oxygen deprivation before or during birth. Serious emotional disorders may accompany language disturbances if an individual’s perception of the world is substantially distorted (Freed, 2012).
Language disorders may also occur if learning opportunities are seriously deficient or are otherwise disrupted. As with speech, children may not learn their native language if the environment is not conducive to such learning (Froemling, Grice, & Skinner, 2011). Modeling in the home may be so infrequent or disordered that a child may not learn lan- guage in a normal fashion.
Aphasia is typically the result of an acquired brain injury or sometimes a developmen- tal abnormality in the brain. Adult aphasia typically is linked to accidents or injuries such as gunshot wounds, motorcycle and auto accidents, and strokes. Current research suggests that different symptoms result from damage to different parts of the brain (Bastiaanse & Thompson, 2012; Manasco, 2014). Injury to one area of the brain may result in impaired expression, poor articulation, slow and labored speech, and grammatical omissions (e.g., of, the, an). However, if a neighboring area of the brain is injured, the resulting speech and language complications differ greatly. Individuals with this neurological damage may show more fluent, but nonsensical, speech known as jargon. Their comprehension is often impaired, resulting in a lack of awareness about their own jumbled speech and deficits. Individuals with aphasia resulting from injury to the back part of the brain seem to have more fluent speech, but the speech lacks important content. The speech of these individuals appears to reflect impaired comprehension (Martin, 2009; Sampson & Faroqi- Shah, 2011).
Pinpointing the causes of different language disorders can be difficult. We do not know precisely how normal language acquisition occurs or how malfunctions influence language disorders. We do know that certain sensory and other physiological systems must be intact for language processes to develop normally. For example, impaired vision or hearing may result in a language deficit (Freed, 2012; Reed, 2012). Likewise, serious brain damage may inhibit normal language functioning. Learning must also progress in a systematic, sequen- tial fashion for speech and language to develop appropriately (Bernstein & Levy, 2009).
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10 – 3 L A N G UAG E D I S O R D E R S 239
10-3d Identification and Assessment of Language Disorders As we have seen with other disabilities, referrals may come from several stakeholders, notably parents and teachers or other educational personnel (Miller & Wagstaff, 2011). Parents play the most critical role in initial identification of potential problems, because their child’s communication skills develop during the early years. Such initial assessments are likely to emerge when the child’s communication performance attracts someone’s atten- tion, such as when a child does not meet major communication milestones. Parents working with speech-language pathologists become key figures in coordinating multidisciplinary team collaboration (Pfeiffer & Adkins, 2012). Referrals, screening procedures, diagnoses, and interventions will follow trajectories that are mapped specifically on the features of a child’s communication disability and other contextual matters, such as family circum- stances (Moore & Montgomery, 2008).
Because language disorders are varied, effective assessment components must reflect that variation to adequately serve the needs of the individual (Schwartz, 2012). Such co- operation is crucial for students with communication disorders because of the broad array of challenges that fall into the purview of different disciplines ranging from medical and health-related specialties to those involving teaching and positive behavior development.
Assessments for classification of language disorder include natural language samples through direct observation in different communicative contexts, formal and informal in- teraction with the child, and observing interactions between the child and her parents, usually with the observation lasting at least 30 minutes so the speech-language pathologist has sufficient time to observe the quantity and quality of utterances (Tager-Flusberg et al., 2009). Assessments also include parent-report measures to provide observations that are not readily observed in clinic settings. Finally, multidisciplinary teams may conduct direct assessments of a child’s language skills using standardized measures. Although few instruments are valid for children younger than 24 months of age (Tager-Flusberg et al., 2009), the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (Bayley, 2005) is one test that has been used to help diagnose infants and toddlers with language disorders. Having an early diagnosis helps and guides multidisciplinary teams in providing early and effective interventions for these children (Torras-Mañá, Guillamón-Valenzuela, Ramírez-Mallafré, Brun-Gasca, & Fornieles-Deu, 2014). Comprehensive evaluations are critical, particularly for children who are not meeting expected developmental milestones, because disordered language development may be a red flag for the possibility of other physical or developmen- tal problems that manifest themselves first as a language problems (McLaughlin, 2011).
Assessment typically involves the development of an individual’s profile of strengths, limitations, age, developmental level, monolingual or bilingual background, and literacy, as well as considerations regarding temperament that may affect therapy. From such a profile, an individualized treatment plan is designed and put in place (Bastiaanse & Thompson, 2012).
Speech-language pathologists assessing bilingual clients must be able to differentiate between a speech-language disorder and difficulties resulting from speech-language differ- ences. Thus, SLPs must be familiar with a wide variety of cultural and linguistic differences and, when assessing, must consider many factors such as family dynamics, socioeconomic status, cultural traditions, gender, and class that make up an individual’s cultural identity. Without considering these factors, clinicians may perform a skewed and biased assessment, failing to accurately represent a child’s speech and language abilities. These misdiagnoses result in time and effort being wasted treating those who need no speech or language in- tervention, but who may possibly need culturally and linguistically relevant instruction.
So, how can assessment be carried out in such a way as to prevent misdiagnoses of cul- turally and linguistically diverse students? Simply translating standardized assessments into the native language fails to be the answer. Because various cultures do not put the same emphasis on labeling items or the acquiring knowledge of prepositions, for example, a translated assessment will fail to accurately depict the native language abilities of an emergent bilingual child. Thus, a more nuanced, sociocultural approach, involving dynamic assessment (test–teach–retest format), ethnographic interviewing, and direct observation, should be taken when assessing culturally and linguistically diverse students.
Standard 4 Assessment
Standard 7 Collaboration
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C H A P T E R 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N D I S O R D E R S240
10-3e Interventions and Treatments for Language Disorders Treatments for language disorders must account for many elements as the multidisciplinary team develops a treatment plan (Pfeiffer & Adkins, 2012). Interventions are individualized, and significant planning is required, especially by speech-language pathologists (Meinzen- Derr, Wiley, Grether, & Choo, 2011; Schwartz, 2012). Furthermore, early interventions are critical for the success of infants and toddlers at risk for and diagnosed with communica- tion disorders. Research indicates that the earlier a child is diagnosed and receives services individualized to the changing needs, preferences, and priorities of the family, the more positive the outcomes (Paul & Roth, 2011).
Interventions for all communication disorders must consider multiple elements: the nature of the problem, the impact on the individual, and the individualized delivery of services (Fogle, 2013; Pfeiffer & Adkins, 2012). Two areas of primary importance while serving students with language impairments are to create an individualized language plan, and to consider augmentative and alternative communication strategies or devices.
When a student is identified as having a language disorder, the multidisciplinary team, including parents, should develop an individualized language plan (ILP), similar in concept to the individualized education programs (IEPs) mandated by IDEA (Tiegerman- Farber, 2009). These intervention plans often include several components:
● Long-range goals (annual) ● Short-range and specific behavioral objectives ● A statement of the resources to be used in achieving the objectives ● A description of evaluation methods ● Program beginning and ending dates ● Evaluation of the individual’s generalization of skills ● A statement regarding service delivery location(s)
After the team decides upon these items, services are then delivered. In some cases, speech- language services are provided in a therapy room; however, in other situations, the team determines the services are most appropriately delivered in the general or special education classroom. Some students receive services in multiple locations, under the direction of the speech-language pathologist, who works to assure skills learned in isolated or small group settings are generalized to more natural environments.
Several questions immediately arise, including what to teach or remediate first and whether teaching should focus on an individual’s strong or weak areas. These questions have been raised with respect to many disabilities. Teaching exclusively to children’s weaknesses may result in more failure than is either necessary or helpful to their prog- ress. That is, children may experience so little success and receive so little reinforcement that they become discouraged. Good clinical judgment needs to be exercised in deciding how to divide one’s attention between the students’ strengths and their weaknesses. One program, Systematic Engaging Early Literacy (SEEL), has been developed to bal- ance instruction to meet the unique needs of young children with speech and language impairments, while attending to their strengths as curious, active, and playful children. See the accompanying Learning through Social Media box for a description of this free and effective resource.
For adults with aphasia, an individualized treatment plan also involves evaluation, pro- file development, and teaching/therapy in specific areas within each of the broad domains (Chabon & Cohn, 2011). Such training should begin as soon as possible, depending on the person’s condition. The most noticeable recovery of speech and language abilities happens within the first couple months following a stroke. After about six months, however, the rate of recovery slows significantly (Vukovic, Vuksanovic, & Vukovic, 2008). Advances in technology are often used in diagnosis and treatment (Fogle, 2013); for example, brain stimulation and medication are relatively new treatments for individuals with aphasia (Fama & Turkeltaub, 2014).
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
Individualized language plan (ILP) A service and instructional plan developed by the multidisciplinary team (including parents) when a student is identified as having a language disorder.
Standard 2 Learning Environments
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10 – 3 L A N G UAG E D I S O R D E R S 241
Some people with communication disorders require intervention through communica- tion other than oral language. In some cases, the person may be incapable of speaking be- cause of a severe physical or cognitive disability, so a nonspeech means of communication must be selected, designed, and implemented. Known as augmentative and alternative communication (AAC), this area of practice is intended to either augment an individual’s existing speech and language or to serve an alternative to speech, and requires collabo- ration among professionals from many disciplines, such as speech-language pathology, special education, vocational rehabilitation, and engineering.
Some AAC strategies may be “no tech” or “low tech,” such as the use of sign language, picture communication books, or communication boards. Other strategies might be more “moderate” or “high tech,” such as the use of communication applications on an iPad, highly specific software and hardware on a computer, or a special device dedicated for the sole pur- pose of providing communication ac- cess to users. Research results suggest that carefully chosen techniques and devices can be quite effective (Fogle, 2013; Johnston, Reichle, Feeley, & Jones, 2012). See the nearby Assis- tive Technology feature about one of the world’s greatest astrophysicists, Stephen Hawking, who lost the abil- ity to speak after tracheotomy surgery. Dr. Hawking uses a dedicated device to communicate expressively and has delivered many speeches and written many best-selling books using his alternative means of speech.
Individuals use AAC to not only to provide them with a “voice” with which they can communicate in their social environments, but to increase their participation in their home and community environments, elevate their quality of life, enhance their relationships, and overcome barriers (Beukelman & Mirenda, 2012). Augmentative and alternative com- munication devices and strategies have received increasing attention in the past few years, partly because of the availability of affordable technology and partly because of prominent coverage provided in the popular press.
Users of AAC include those with a variety of conditions that affect communication including intellectual disabilities, autism, physical disabilities, and multiple disabilities (Johnston et al., 2012). These strategies must also be individualized to meet the specific needs of those being treated and to take into account their strengths and limitations in operating the technology.
Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) An area of practice intended to either augment an individual’s existing speech and language or to serve an alternative to speech.
Standard 7 Collaboration
Treating Language Delays Preschool children with language delays benefit from literacy activities that are systematic and engaging. A free curriculum, SEEL (Systematic En- gaging Early Literacy), is available for those who teach children in preschool through first grade who have language delays or reading difficulties, as well as typically developing children. The
lessons are engaging, motivating chil- dren to participate playfully in mean- ingful activities. They explore learning through informal and spontaneous conversations, receive frequent and varied practice opportunities, make meaningful connections, and learn explicitly “what, why, and how.” For example, in the lesson plan to teach
students the short Aa sound, students engage in word play about Andy, who loves ants, and says “Aachoo!” when he hears a word that begins with the Aa sound. Resources are also avail- able in Spanish. To access these free resources, visit http://education.byu .edu/seel.
LEARNING THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA
Photo 10.4 Technology devices such as iPads or similar may be used effectively for children as they learn to name items, to speak to others when the tablets are programmed in this fashion, or flexibly as both with different applications installed.
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C H A P T E R 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N D I S O R D E R S242
10-4 Speech Sound Disorders This section presents information related to speech sound disorders, including their defini- tions and classifications, characteristics and prevalence, causes and risk factors, identifica- tion and assessment, and finally, interventions and treatments.
10-4a Definitions and Classifications of Speech Sound Disorders To be diagnosed with a speech sound disorder, individuals must experience persistent chal- lenges with speech sound production, and those difficulties must interfere with intelligibility of speech (American Psychological Association, 2013). Speech sound disorder (or articula- tion disorder) represents the largest category of all speech problems. Additionally, much of the past and current speech and language research attends to this disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Plante & Beeson, 2013).
10-4b Characteristics and Prevalence of Speech Sound Disorders Speech is very important in contemporary society. Speaking ability can influence a person’s success or failure in personal, social, and professional arenas. Most people are average in their speaking ability, and they may envy those who are unusually articulate and pity those who have a difficult time with speech. What is it like to have a serious deficit in speaking ability? It is different for each individual, depending on the circumstances in which he or she operates and the severity of the disorder.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
World-Renowned Astrophysicist Stephen Hawking’s Use of Assistive Technology
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
I can then send it to the speech syn- thesizer a sentence at a time using the Equalizer software written by Words Plus. It works quite well and I can try out the lecture and polish it before I give it.
I keep looking into new assistive tech- nologies, and recently Intel [has] spon- sored a team of its engineers to design a new facial recognition system aimed at improving my communication speed. They also have some new ideas regard- ing my software interface and it will be interesting to see the results of this. It looks quite promising. I have also experimented with Brain Controlled Interfaces to communicate with my computer; however, as yet these don’t work as consistently as my cheek- operated switch.
SOURCE: Hawking, S. “The Computer.” Retrieved on April 13, 2015, from www.hawking.org.uk/the-computer.html.
Since 1997, my computer-based com- munication system has been sponsored and provided by Intel® Corporation. A tablet computer mounted on the arm of my wheelchair is powered by my wheel- chair batteries, although the tablet’s internal battery will keep the computer running if necessary.
My main interface to the computer is through a program called EZ Keys, writ- ten by Words Plus Inc. This provides a software keyboard on the screen. A cursor automatically scans across this keyboard by row or by column. I can select a character by moving my cheek to stop the cursor. My cheek move- ment is detected by an infrared switch that is mounted on my spectacles. This switch is my only interface with the computer. EZ Keys includes a word prediction algorithm, so I usually only have to type the first couple of charac- ters before I can select the whole word.
When I have built up a sentence, I can send it to my speech synthesizer. I use a separate hardware synthesizer, made by Speech+. It is the best I have heard, although it gives me an accent that has been described variously as Scandina- vian, American, or Scottish.
Through EZ Keys I can also control the mouse in Windows. This allows me to operate my whole computer. I can check my email using the Eudora email client, surf the Internet using Firefox, or write lectures using Notepad. My latest computer from Intel, based on an Intel® Core™ i7 Processor and Intel® Solid-State Drive 520 Series, also contains a web- cam which I use with Skype to keep in touch with my friends. I can express a lot through my facial expressions to those who know me well.
I can also give lectures. I write the lec- ture beforehand and save it on disk.
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10 – 4 S P E E C H S O U N D D I S O R D E R S 243
People with articulation problems often carry strong emotional reactions to their speech that may significantly influence their behavior, such as restricting their speech or not speaking at all. Speech is so critical to functioning in society that speech disorders often have a significant impact on affected individuals. It is not difficult to imagine the impact poor articulation may have in classroom settings or social environments. Children may be ridiculed by peers, feel inadequate, suffer emotional stress, and even struggle academically. That stress may continue into adolescence (Brinton, Fujiki, & Baldridge, 2010) and even adulthood, limiting their social lives and influencing their vocational choices.
Speech sound disorders are characterized by problems with articulation (making sounds) and sound patterns (phonological processing), resulting in the inaccurate or oth- erwise inappropriate execution of speaking (Hartmann, 2008). Individuals may make certain types of errors or distribute errors incorrectly (e.g., the position of the sound in the word) (ASHA, 2015b).
The error types can be remembered by the acronym SODA: substitutions, omissions, distortions, and additions (Daymut, 2009). Substitutions happen when a speaker substi- tutes one phoneme for another, such as saying /w/ for /r/ (e.g., wight for right), /w/ for /l/ (e.g., fowo for follow), and /th/ for /s/ (e.g., thtop for stop, and thoup for soup). Omissions (or deletions) most frequently involve dropping consonants from the ends of words (e.g., los for lost), although omissions may occur in any position in a word. Distortions happen when a speaker produces an unfamiliar sound (e.g., nasalized, where /p/ may sound more like /m/). Additions involve adding an extra sound (e.g., dog-uh for dog). Articulation errors may also involve transitional lisps, where a /th/ sound precedes or follows an /s/ (e.g., sthoup for soup or yeths for yes) (Plante & Beeson, 2013).
Speech sound disorders are a rather prevalent type of speech problem. Research sug- gests that most problems encountered by speech clinicians involve articulation disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), with a prevalence rate of 1.06 percent of elemen- tary school children having a speech sound disorder (McKinnon, McLeod, & Reilly, 2007).
10-4c Causes and Risk Factors of Speech Sound Disorders Speech sound disorders are believed to develop for three primary reasons: structural, neuro- logical, and functional. Structural reasons include physiological problems such as abnormal mouth, jaw, or teeth structures, or cleft palate. Neurological problems include those result- ing from nerve injury or brain damage (Plante & Beeson, 2013; Raposa & Perlman, 2012).
Functional articulation disorders refer to articulation problems that are not due to structural physiological defects, but rather are likely to have resulted from environmental or psychological influences. The vast majority of articulation disorders are functional. However, such categories of causation overlap in practice, and even the line between func- tional and structural articulation disorders is indistinct. Function and structure, though often related, are not perfectly correlated: Some people with physical malformations that “should” result in articulation problems do not have such problems, and vice versa.
Despite this qualifying note, we will examine the causes of speech sound disorders due to either structural or functional reasons. These distinctions remain useful for instructional purposes because it is unusual for individuals to overcome a physical abnormality and articulate satisfactorily.
Many different physical structures influence speech formulation, and all must be syn- chronized with learned muscle and tissue movements, auditory feedback, and a multitude of other factors. These coordinated functions are almost never perfect, but for most people they develop in a remarkably successful manner. Oral structure malformations alter the manner in which coordinated movements must take place, and sometimes they make nor- mal or accurate production of sounds extremely difficult, if not impossible.
One faulty oral formation recognized by most people is the cleft palate, which speech- language pathologists often refer to as clefts of the lip, palate, or both. The cleft palate is a gap in the soft palate and roof of the mouth, sometimes extending through the hard palate and upper lip. The roof of the mouth serves an important function in accurate sound produc- tion. A cleft palate reduces the division between the nasal and mouth cavities, influencing
Functional articulation disorders Articulation problems that are likely the result of environmental or psychological influences.
Cleft palate A gap in the soft palate and roof of the mouth, sometimes extending through the upper lip.
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C H A P T E R 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N D I S O R D E R S244
the movement of air that is so important to articulation performance (Klinto, Salameh, Svensson, & Lohmander, 2011). Clefts are congenital defects that occur in about one of every 700 births and may take any of several forms (e.g., Owens, Metz, & Farinella, 2011; Raposa & Perlman, 2012). Figure 10.3 shows a normal palate in part (a) and unilateral and bilateral cleft palates in parts (b) and (c), respectively; it is easy to see how articulation would be impaired. These problems are caused by prenatal developmental difficulties and are often corrected with surgery.
Articulation performance is also significantly influenced by a person’s dental structure. Because the tongue and lips work together with the teeth to form many sounds, dental abnormalities may result in serious articulation disorders. Some dental malformations are side effects of cleft palates, as shown in parts (b) and (c) of Figure 10.3, but other dental deformities not associated with clefts also cause articulation difficulties.
The natural meshing of the teeth in the upper and lower jaws is important to speech production. The general term used for the closure and fitting together of dental structures is occlusion. When the fit is abnormal, the condition is known as malocclusion. Occlu- sion involves several factors, including the biting height of the teeth when the jaws are closed, the alignment of teeth in the upper and lower jaws, the nature of curves in upper and lower jaws, and teeth positioning. A normal adult occlusion is illustrated in part (a) of nearby Figure 10.4. The upper teeth normally extend slightly beyond those of the lower jaw, and the bite overlap of those on the bottom is about one-third for the top front teeth when the jaw is closed.
Occlusion abnormalities take many forms, although we will discuss only two. When the overbite of the top teeth is unusually large, normal difference between the lower and upper dental structures is exaggerated. Such conditions may be due to the positioning of the upper and lower jaws, as illustrated in part (b) of Figure 10.4. In other cases, nearly the
Occlusion The closing and fitting together of dental structures.
Malocclusion An abnormal fit between the upper and lower dental structures.
Figure 10.3 Normal and Cleft Palate Configuration
(a) Normal palate configuration (b) Unilateral cleft palate (c) Bilateral cleft palate (d) Repaired cleft palate
Figure 10.4 Normal and Abnormal Dental Occlusion
(a) Normal dental occlusion (b) Overbite malocclusion (c) Underbite malocclusion
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10 – 4 S P E E C H S O U N D D I S O R D E R S 245
opposite occurs, as illustrated in part (c) of Figure 10.4, forming another kind of jaw mis- alignment. Exaggerated overbites and underbites may result from atypical teeth positions or angles as well as from atypical jaw alignment. All can cause articulation difficulties.
Many disorders are thought to be due to faulty language learning or functional articula- tion disorders. The sources of defective speech learning are often unknown or difficult to identify precisely (Robinson & Robb, 2009; Snowling & Hulme, 2012). Like other articula- tion problems, those of a functional nature have numerous specific causes. For example, interactions between children and their adult caretakers (parents and others) make a major contribution to language acquisition (Bernstein & Levy, 2009; Williams, 2011). In some cases, existing stimulus and reinforcement patterns may not support accurate articula- tion. For example, parents may be inconsistent in encouraging and prompting accurate articulation. Urging their children to speak properly may not be high on their priority list. However, such encouragement is important, particularly if misarticulation begins to emerge as a problem.
Many parents speak differently to infants and toddlers than they do to older children, youth, or adults. This has been called “parentese” or “motherese” and has been found to promote vocal productions and language development in infants and toddlers. However, when still used as the child grows older, this can be detrimental to speech, language, and social development.
Also, adults may encourage baby talk in children and youth by reinforcing and model- ing such speech. For example, such speech may be powerfully reinforced by parents ask- ing the child to say a particular word in the presence of grandparents or other guests and rewarding him or her with laughter, hugs, and kisses. Such potent rewards can result in misarticulations that linger long beyond the time when normal maturation would dimin- ish or eliminate them. Related defective learning may come from modeling. Modeling is a potent tool in shaping speech and language behavior. Although the negative influence of baby talk between parents and children has been questioned, modeling and imitation are used in interventions and are thought to influence natural verbal development (Aarts, Demir, & Vallen, 2011; Syrja, 2011).
10-4d Identification and Assessment of Speech Sound Disorders Identification and assessment of speech sound disorders occur in similar ways as for language disorders. Typically, the family members are concerned about the young child’s speech, either because of poor intelligibility, minor articulation problems, or other related speech problems. However, a predictable developmental progression occurs in a substan- tial number of functional articulation disorders. In such cases, articulation problems diminish and may even cease to exist as the child matures. For instance, the /r/, /s/, and /th/ problems disappear for many children after the age of 5. Therefore, many articulation problems that occur early in a child’s life will not become problematic. However, when they do remain, parents are encouraged to have their child evaluated by a speech-language pathologist.
If the child is determined to have a speech sound disorder, speech therapy is often pre- scribed. If in a school setting, the child may receive a classification by the multidisciplinary team as having a developmental delay in the area of speech (in children younger than 9), or as having a speech-language impairment (for children 9 or older, although teams may give the SLI label to children under 9 if they so choose). Such children can then receive free and appropriate services tailored to meet their individual needs.
10-4e Interventions and Treatments for Speech Sound Disorders Many types of treatment exist for speech sound disorders. Clearly, the treatment for disor- ders due to physical abnormalities differs from that for functional disorders. In many cases, however, treatment may include a combination of procedures. The treatment of articulation disorders has also been somewhat controversial, partly because of the prevalence in young children whose articulation skills are most likely to diminish and even disappear over time.
Standard 4 Assessment
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
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C H A P T E R 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N D I S O R D E R S246
Thus, many school administrators are reluctant to provide services to treat functional articulation disorders in younger students. In other words, if a significant proportion of articulation disorders is likely to be corrected as the child continues to develop, why expend precious resources on early treatment? This logic has a certain appeal, particularly in times when there is a shortage of educational resources and their use is constantly questioned. However, this argument must be applied with considerable caution. In general, improvement of articulation performance continues until a child is about 9 or 10 years old (see the nearby Reflect on This feature to hear from 7½-year-old Timothy). If articulation problems persist beyond this age, they are unlikely to improve without intense intervention. Furthermore, the longer such problems are allowed to continue, the more difficult treatment becomes and the less likely it is to be successful. Although some researchers suggest that the impact of articulation difficulties is ultimately minimal, others believe that affected individuals may still evidence residuals of the disorder many years later (Owens, Metz, & Farinella, 2011; Plante & Beeson, 2013).
One treatment option is to combine articulation training provided by speech-language pathologists with other instruction for all very young children. This approach may serve as an interim measure for those who have continuing problems, by facilitating the devel- opment of articulation for others and not overly taxing school resources. It does, however, require some training for teachers of young children. Other treatment options include medical professionals, particularly if there are surgical needs.
Considerable progress has been made over the years in various types of surgical repair for cleft palates. Current research addresses a number of related matters, such as complex patient assessment before and after intervention (Chabon & Cohn, 2011; Reed, 2012). The surgical procedures may be intricate because of the dramatic nature of the structural defect. Some such interventions include Teflon implants in the hard portion of the palate, as well as stretching and stitching together the fleshy tissue. As nearby Figure 10.3 suggests, surgery is often required for the upper lip and nose structures, and corrective dental work may be undertaken as well. It may also be necessary to train or retrain an individual in articulation and to assess his or her emotional status insofar as it is related to appearance or speech skills, depending on the child’s age at the time of surgery (Snowling & Hulme, 2012). A child’s continued development may introduce new problems later; for example, the physical growth of the jaw or mouth may create difficulties for someone who under- went surgery at a very young age. Although early correction results in successful healing and speech for a very high percentage of treated cases, the permanence of such results is uncertain in light of later growth spurts.
Treatment of cleft palate may involve the use of prosthetic appliances as well. For example, a prosthesis that basically serves as the upper palate may be used. Such an ap- pliance may be attached to the teeth to hold it in position; it resembles the palate portion of artificial dentures.
Dental malformations other than those associated with clefts can also be corrected. Surgery can alter jaw structure and alignment. In some cases, orthodontic treatment may involve the repositioning of teeth through extractions and the use of braces. Prosthetic ap- pliances, such as full or partial artificial dentures, may also be used. As in other challenges, the articulation patient who has orthodontic treatment often requires speech therapy to learn proper speech performance.
Treatment of functional articulation disorders often focuses on relearning certain speaking acts; in some cases, muscle control and usage are the focus. Specific causes of improper learning are difficult to identify precisely, but the basic assumption is that an inappropriate stimulus and reinforcement situation was present in the environment during speech development (Owens, Metz, & Farinella, 2011; Plante & Beeson, 2013). Accord- ingly, treatment includes attempts to correct that set of circumstances so that accurate articulation can be learned. Several behavior modification procedures have been employed successfully in treating functional articulation disorders. In most cases, treatment tech- niques are difficult to implement because interventions must teach proper articulation, must be tailored to the individual, and must promote generalization of the new learning to a variety of word configurations and diverse environments beyond the treatment setting (Owens, Metz, & Farinella, 2011).
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
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10 – 4 S P E E C H S O U N D D I S O R D E R S 247
It should also be noted that differences in language and accent can create some in- teresting issues regarding treatment. When a child’s first language is other than English or involves an accent different from the mainstream, that youngster may demonstrate a distinctiveness of articulation that makes his or her speech different and perhaps hard to understand (Aarts, Demir, & Vallen, 2011; Battle, 2009; Snowling & Hulme, 2012). Does this circumstance require an intervention similar to that applied for articulation disorders? Such a question involves cultural, social, and political implications beyond those typically considered by communication professionals. See the Case Study on Em- bracing Diversity for more information related to differentiating between dialects and articulation disorders.
Speech-language pathologists are often concerned about the level of intensity and frequency of their services. What does the child need in order to correct her speech sound disorder? Some research indicates that for preschool children, three sessions per week yield greater success than only once per week after 24 sessions. It is important to have at least 80 to 100 responses made by the child per session (Allen, 2013).
Timothy: “I Think I Talk Okay, Don’ You?”
My name is Timothy. I am almost 7½ years old. Mondays after school, I go to the university where I meet “wif a lady who help me talk betto. It was my teacha’s idea ’cause she said I don’ say ‘I’ and ‘r’ good an some othos too. I kinda like it [coming here] but I think I talk okay, don’ you? I can say ‘I’ good
now all the time and ‘r’ when I reeeally think about it. I have lots of friends, fow, no—five. I don’ talk to them about co- min’ hea, guess I’m jus not in the mood. Hey, you witing this down, is that good? You know the caw got hit by a semi this mowning and the doow hanle came off. I’m a little dizzy ’cause we wecked.”
Timothy, age 7½
Question for Reflection Timothy thinks he talks okay. What do you think? Although Timothy is already receiving some assistance, given his age, do you think additional interven- tion is needed?
REFLECT ON THIS
Emilio
CASE STUDY ON EMBRACING DIVERSITY
It may be difficult for speech-language pathologists to conduct culturally rel- evant and appropriate assessments for English language learners. For ex- ample, 7-year-old Emilio is a student whose parents speak only Spanish, and he is the oldest of three children. He has been in a dual-immersion program for two and a half years and is experienc- ing difficulties producing particular sounds in English. It seems to the SLP that Emilio is slower to articulate some sounds than his other native Spanish- speaking peers. How can the SLP de- termine whether this is an articulation problem or an influence from Emilio’s
native language? For example, he says the word “espaghetti” rather than “spaghetti” (a phoneme distortion). This is typical for native Spanish speak- ers, where there is no initial /s/ cluster in their language, but the SLP does not have significant experience working with Spanish-speaking stu- dents, so she is not aware of these differences. Therefore, she seeks assis- tance from her multidisciplinary team, which includes native Spanish-speaking professionals.
When school personnel distinguish speech and language differences from
disorders, they can develop treatment plans that are individualized and ap- propriate for each student. Bilinguistics has developed free downloadable files that show the common deletions, dis- tortions, and replacements in second- language learners.
Application Questions As a member of the multidisciplinary team, what advice would you give to Emilio’s speech-language pathologist regarding differentiating between speech-language disabilities and speech-language differences?
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C H A P T E R 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N D I S O R D E R S248
10-5 Child Onset Fluency Disorder This section presents information related to child onset fluency disorder, including its definitions and classifications, characteristics and prevalence, causes and risk factors, identification and assessment, and finally, interventions and treatments.
10-5a Definitions and Classifications of Child Onset Fluency Disorder Child onset fluency disorder, or stuttering, occurs when the individual’s normal fluency and time patterning of speech is disturbed, and this causes anxiety about speaking. The onset is in the child’s early developmental period, but deficits may occur as social commu- nication demands increase (American Psychological Association, 2013).
10-5b Characteristics and Prevalence of Child Onset Fluency Disorder In typical speech, we are accustomed to a reasonably smooth flow of words and sentences. For the most part, speech has a rhythm that is steady, regular, and rapid. Most of us also have times when we pause to think about what we are saying, either because we have made a mistake or because we want to mentally edit what we are about to say. However, these interruptions are considered typical, occur infrequently, and do not disturb the ongoing flow of our speaking. Our speech is generally fluent in speed and continuity.
However, when an individual has childhood onset fluency disorder (stuttering), typical flow of speech is abnormally interrupted by repetitions, blocks, or prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases (Chang & Zhu, 2013; Fogle, 2013). When conversing, it becomes apparent when an individual stutters. Interruptions in speech flow are very evident to both speaker and listener, and are disruptive to communication. Listeners may grow uncom- fortable and try to assist the stuttering speaker by providing missing or incomplete words (Flynn & St. Louis, 2011; Przepiorka, Blachnio, St. Louis, & Wozniak, 2013).
Some people have a fluency disorder known as cluttered speech, or cluttering, which is characterized by overly rapid speech that is disorganized, and occasionally filled with unnecessary words (Bretherton-Furness & Ward, 2012). However, the most recognized fluency disorder is stuttering.
Stuttering generally presents itself in childhood and, in some circumstances, lasts into adulthood. The majority of children who stutter start to do so around two and a half years of age (ASHA, 2015c). Common symptoms of child onset fluency disorder are the frequent repetition of sounds and syllables. They may frequently use broken words, where long pauses interrupt the completion of a single word. Because some words may be so difficult to say, children with fluency disorders may avoid the use of certain words altogether. This is known as circumlocutions. In order to produce words, some children may demonstrate excessive physical tension, like increased eye blinking, twitching, tremors, and clenching of fists (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). See the Snapshot, “Trinity: Stuttering Is Like a Car Going Too Fast” by a seventh-grade student who stutters.
Although not an initial symptom of child onset fluency disorder, many children experi- ence increased stress and anxiety as a result of stuttering, especially in social situations. They may be embarrassed to speak because of their stuttering, which may decrease the amount of social interactions they have. It may also negatively affect their academic and occupational performance (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Oftentimes, the se- verity of stuttering increases under social pressure. For example, a person’s stuttering may worsen when it is necessary to give a presentation in front of a group of people. However, in other situations such as when the speaker is reading out loud, singing, or communicat- ing with a pet or an inanimate object, the stuttering may be completely absent (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Although stuttering is a familiar concept to most people, it occurs rather infrequently. Prevalence differs in the literature, but some research shows that 5 to 8 percent of the general population has experienced stuttering at some point in their lives (Chang & Zhu, 2013). According to research conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Child onset fluency disorder (stuttering) A symptom of child-onset fluency disorder that occurs when the flow of speech is abnormally interrupted by repetitions, blocking, or prolon- gations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases.
Cluttering A speech disorder characterized by excessively rapid, disorganized speaking, often including words or phrases unrelated to the topic.
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approximately 1 to 2 percent of children between ages 3 and 17 have child onset fluency disorder (ASHA, 2015c), with boys being 3 to 4 times as likely to develop stuttering as girls (National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2014). Child onset fluency disorder has one of the lowest prevalence rates among all speech disorders (Chang & Zhu, 2013).
10-5c Causes and Risk Factors of Child Onset Fluency Disorder For many years, it was believed that stuttering was caused by overly strict parenting, such as young children experiencing traumatic toilet training. However, this psychogenic theory has not been generally supported by empirical research. Most research supports two primary causes of child onset fluency disorder: developmental stuttering and neurogenic stuttering.
Developmental stuttering occurs when a child’s speech and language abilities do not meet verbal demands. This type of stuttering has a genetic basis, with a breakthrough discovery in 2010 of three genes that cause stut- tering. Children of parents who stutter are three times more likely to develop a stutter than the general population (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Neurogenic stuttering occurs after brain injury such as a stroke or head trauma (National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2010).
Although parenting styles may not cause child onset fluency disorder, environmental factors may worsen the symptoms (ASHA, 2015c). Stuttering may also be a by-product of another sensory deficit, like a hearing impairment. In some cases, stuttering may be a side effect of some medications.
10-5d Identification and Assessment of Child Onset Fluency Disorder Parents often become concerned about stuttering as their children learn to talk. Most chil- dren exhibit some normal dysfluencies that diminish and cease with maturation. Approxi- mately 80 to 90 percent of children who are diagnosed with child onset fluency disorder present symptoms by age 6. However, the age when children are usually diagnosed ranges between 2 and 7 years old (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Children who present symptoms of child onset fluency disorder are referred to a speech-language pathologist. The child is then assessed over a period of time and in various social situations to determine the severity of the stuttering and to assess the settings in which the stuttering is absent, diminished, or elevated (ASHA, 2015c). Speech-language pathologists also pay special at- tention to how parents, peers, and others react to the stuttering.
When making a diagnosis, SLPs pay particular attention to how severe the child’s stuttering is and how inhibiting it is in the child’s family, social, emotional, and aca- demic life. They also consider how the child is impacted emotionally by the stutter- ing (ASHA, 2015c). However, stuttering alone does not necessarily prevent success in school, extracurricular, or other life areas. The Snapshot “Windows to the World” describes the early influence of a teacher on Tom Holdman, a second-grade boy with a fluency disorder. With the encouragement and guidance from his parents and teachers, Tom found an additional way to communicate with the world—through art. He is now a world-renowned artist and owns his own studio, specializing in an ancient art form of using crushed glass in his stained glass windows, some over 5,000 square feet and consisting of over 40,000 individual pieces. His artwork has been showcased in many national and international venues.
Standard 4 Assessment
Photo 10.5 The way in which parents speak greatly affects their child’s speech patterns.
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SNAPSHOT Windows to the World: A True Story
by Brad Wilcox Tom was a bright boy. His mind was quick. His hands were quicker. He loved learning at school, but he faced one problem. His parents didn’t like to call it a problem. They called it a challenge. Tom stuttered. It took him forever to get out the simplest sentence. Each…word…c a me…w ith…g reat… effort. When he spoke he would squint his eyes, tighten the muscles in his neck, and ball his little hands into fists. He made it through first grade… with…great…effort.
Mrs. Wilcox was Tom’s second- grade teacher. Her mind was creative. Her hands were nurturing. She had been told about Tom’s problem, but she didn’t like to call it a problem. She called it an opportunity.
Tom’s favorite time of the day was story time when Mrs. Wilcox gathered her students on the shag rug at the back of the classroom. Then she would sit in her wooden rocking chair and read story after story. Tom would close his eyes and listen to the rhythm of her words. In his mind he would see images and his hands would move across the carpet bring- ing the images to life. He ran his fingers through the long carpet yarn standing it up into walls, shaping it into patterns.
When Mrs. Wilcox excused the students to return to their desks she would linger where Tom had been sit- ting. She would smile down at his cre- ations and sense the talent inside this boy, just waiting to come out.
One day the class stood to say the Pledge of Allegiance as they always did. Tom usually remained quiet, but this day he tried to repeat the words along with the class: “I… p…p…pledge…” He had only said a few words and the children began to giggle. “You sound like Porky Pig,” said a boy standing near. Then the boy yelled loudly, “Th…Th…That’s all folks.” Everyone laughed.
Mrs. Wilcox quickly quieted the children and moved ahead with the lesson, but she could see Tom with his head down on his desk. She could see his little shoulders quivering.
Later that morning, Mrs. Wilcox pulled Tom aside and looked at him lovingly over her reading glasses.
“Tom,” she said. “You have so much to say, but words are only one way to ex- press all the wonders inside you. There are other ways.” And she handed him a sketch pad and a brand new pencil.
“But… I…can’t…draw…” Tom protested.
“Yes, you can. I’ve seen you do it on the carpet.”
“But…what can I…draw?” He asked.
Mrs. Wilcox looked around the room until her eyes settled on the cor- ner. “Draw the flag,” she said with a smile.
Later that day, some of the other second-graders saw Tom busy at his desk and wondered what he was do- ing. They circled around and were surprised at the wonderful picture he was finishing.
“Wow!” said one of the girls. “Tom drew the flag. He’s an artist.” All the other students hurried to see.
“Will you draw a picture for me?” asked one of the boys.
Tom smiled at Mrs. Wilcox who was smiling back from across the room.
Later in the year a student teacher visited Tom’s class and was doing the reading lesson. Before anyone could explain, she called on Tom to read aloud. He swallowed hard, looked at the words on the page and began:
“The…boy…ran…” When some of the children started
to snicker, Tom threw his book down and ran out of the room. Mrs. Wilcox followed him into the hall. “Tom,” she said placing her hands on his shoul- ders. “You have so much to say, but words are only one way of talking. There are other ways too.” She went back into the classroom and returned with a set of watercolor paints.
“ B u t …w h a t … c a n … I … p a i n t ? ” asked Tom.
“Use your imagination!” Mrs. Wilcox responded. Soon Tom was painting
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250 C H A P T E R 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N D I S O R D E R S
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10-5e Interventions and Treatments for Child Onset Fluency Disorder Fortunately, treatments are much more sophisticated today than those Demosthenes used by putting pebbles in his mouth while speaking. For several years, treatment models have increasingly focused on direct behavioral therapy—that is, attempting to teach children who stutter to use fluent speech patterns (e.g., Carey et al., 2010). In some cases, individuals are taught to monitor and manage their stuttering by speaking more slowly or rhythmically. Using this model, they are also taught to reward themselves for increasing periods of flu- ency. Some behavioral therapies include information regarding physical factors (such as regulating breathing) and direct instruction about correct speaking behaviors. The overall therapy combines several dimensions, such as an interview regarding the inconvenience of stuttering, behavior modification training, and follow-up. Because stuttering is a complex problem, effective interventions are likely to be complicated.
Additionally, interventions such as modeling, self-monitoring, counseling, and the in- volvement of support group assistance have all been studied and shown to be somewhat useful for children who stutter (e.g., Ramig & Dodge, 2010; Reed, 2012). Some research on medication treatment has shown improvements, although pharmacological intervention is not widely selected as a treatment option (Yairi & Seery, 2011). Speech rhythm has been the focus of some therapy, as well as developing the naturalness of speaking patterns. Relaxation ther- apy and biofeedback have also been used, because tension and anxiety are often observed in people who stutter (Fogle, 2012; Owens, Metz, & Farinella, 2011). In all the techniques noted, outcomes are mixed, and people who stutter are likely to try several approaches (Fogle, 2012; Weber-Fox & Hampton, 2008). However, even with the uncertainties in available interven- tions, some research has shown that 65 to 85 percent of children diagnosed with child onset fluency disorder overcome their dysfluency (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The inability of any one treatment or cluster of treatments to consistently help people who stut- ter demonstrates the complexity of this disorder and ongoing need for research in this area.
10-6 Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder This section presents information related to social (pragmatic) communication disorder, including its definitions and classifications, characteristics and prevalence, causes and risk factors, identification and assessment, and finally, interventions and treatments.
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
pictures that were so imaginative that they were displayed in the hall.
Later in the year, Tom was play- ing at recess when a boy said, “Let’s play Red Rover, Red Rover.” Everyone formed into teams and began to chant. Tom couldn’t keep up with the others and was holding up his team. Some of the second-graders from another class began to mimic him. When it was his turn to run, he ran as hard as he could and didn’t stop when he broke through the line. He just kept going.
Mrs. Wilcox watched him round the corner of the building and calmly followed after him. “Tom,” she called out. “Tom, wait!” When she finally caught up, she knelt down next to him. “You have so much to say, but
words are only one way to communi- cate. There are other ways too. Have you ever heard of clay?”
Soon Tom was making snakes and pots and masks for all the other children to enjoy. With his clay he even made their school with all its doors and windows.
When he showed Mrs. Wilcox, she admired the detail. “You’ve done a wonderful job,” she said happily. Then she pointed to one of the windows and said, “That’s what art is, Tom. It is a window to the world. Always keep developing your talents and you will be able to speak what’s in your heart.”
And Tom did just that. When he left second grade, he kept drawing and painting and shaping clay. Then one day in high school his art teacher
demonstrated how to make a stained glass window. He was fascinated by the process and colors and how the light behind the window changed it— as if one piece of art were actually a hundred. He closed his eyes and saw images in his mind. His hands began to move creating shapes and patterns.
Many years have passed. Tom still talks…with…great…effort, but he now knows that words are only one way of speaking. There are other ways, and he has found them. He creates incred- ible stained glass windows that are displayed all over the world. The art window Mrs. Wilcox helped open for Tom, he now opens for many others as he speaks loudly, smoothly, beautifully, and confidently through his windows.
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10-6a Definitions and Classifications of Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder Social (pragmatic) communication disorder (SCD) is characterized by sustained difficulties in using verbal and nonverbal communication, as related to the social purposes of communi- cating with others. These deficits significantly limit an individual’s ability to communicate effectively, participate socially, develop and maintain social relationships, and may even affect academic and occupational performance. The symptoms have an early developmental onset; however, these deficits may not be observable until social communication demands exceed the individual’s limited capabilities (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). This disorder is new to the DSM-5, although the concept and other clinically similar disorders have been identified and treated for a number of years with terms such as social communi- cation disorder and pragmatic language impairment (Rapin & Allen, 1983).
To be diagnosed with SCD, the individual’s communication barriers cannot be better explained by low structural language performance or cognitive ability (American Psychi- atric Association, 2013). Furthermore, a diagnosis of SCD should be considered only if “the developmental history fails to reveal any evidence of restricted/repetitive patterns of be- havior, interests, or activities” (Norbury, 2014, p. 204) that would rule out other diagnoses such as autism spectrum disorder. Also, intellectual disability and global developmental delay must be ruled out for an individual to be diagnosed with SCD.
10-6b Characteristics and Prevalence of Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder Social pragmatic communication requires several different constructs for effective commu- nication. They include using skills such as making joint attention, greeting others, sharing information, and being flexible in communicating effectively with a range of communication partners. It also includes conversational turn-taking and nonverbal communication such as using gestures and making eye contact. Other skills include the ability to connect to others’ emotional states and take another’s perspective (Tierney, Kurtz, Panchik, & Pitterle, 2014). These skills are difficult for those with SCD.
Social (pragmatic) communication disorder has four primary characteristics. First, in- dividuals with SCD have deficits in the use of communication for social reasons. Persistent difficulty in using verbal and nonverbal communication impairs their ability to engage appropriately in social contexts. For example, although they may have normal or even advanced use of language form and content, their use of language may be impaired. They compose well-structured sentences, deliver them according to conventional grammatical and linguistic rules, have accurate articulation, but how, when, and with whom they com- municate is significantly impaired.
Next, they experience significant challenges in changing their communication to match various contexts. Using the earlier example related to pragmatics in this chapter, teach- ers talk differently depending on whether they are teaching students, making a point in a faculty meeting, or chatting at a party. Individuals with SCD cannot make the necessary adjustments for appropriate communication in different settings. For example, they may use overly formal language where informal language is appropriate. This may make it more difficult for them to make, maintain, and enjoy friendships (Tierney et al., 2014), as they may be more comfortable communicating with adults who understand them and can relate to them better. Adults also are more able to repair communicative breakdowns than children. The most prevalent characteristic of SCD is “persistent difficulties in the social use of verbal and nonverbal communication” (DSM-5, 2013). This includes difficulty com- municating “for social purposes, such as greeting and sharing information, in a manner that is appropriate for the social context” (DSM-5, 2013).
Another characteristic of SCD is difficulty following conversational and storytelling rules. They may not take turns appropriately in conversations, realize they are misun- derstood and work to repair the communication breakdown, and ineffectively use verbal or nonverbal signals to regulate their communication interactions (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). For example, they may not understand nonverbal cues such as when a conversational partner looks at his watch to indicate he is ready to exit the conversation.
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Finally, those with SCD lack the ability, or experience extreme difficulty, understanding messages that are not explicitly stated. This means that they struggle to make inferences and have difficulty understanding language that depend on context for understanding such as idioms, metaphors, and some types of humor such as sarcasm (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). For example, when Andy heard his grandmother exclaim “Good grief!” he asked her, “How can grief be good, Grandma?” Andy took his grandmother’s words literally, not realizing that she was using a figure of speech.
At the current time there are no reliable records that show the prevalence of SCD, which may be because so many symptoms of SCD overlap with other disorders (ASHA, 2015d).
10-6c Causes and Risk Factors of Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder Because the communication symptoms of SCD are similar to those with other disorders such as high-functioning autism spectrum disorders (ASD), it is difficult to pinpoint a specific cause or cluster of causes of SCD. However, a family history of communication disorders, ASD, and specific learning disabilities appear to increase the risk for SCD (American Psy- chiatric Association, 2013).
Individuals with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder may experience social commu- nication limitations and social participation difficulties similar to those with SCD. Similarly, those with social anxiety disorders have similar characteristics; however, for those with social anxiety, their symptoms occur after appropriate development and due to anxiety or fear of social interactions. Finally, those with intellectual disability or global developmental delay may have concomitant impaired social communication skills, but SCD is not the ap- propriate diagnosis unless the social communication impairments are significantly exag- gerated in light of the intellectual limitations (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
10-6d Identification and Assessment of Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder Symptoms of SCD normally present themselves in early childhood (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). However, it is uncommon that SCD would be diagnosed in a child younger than 4 or 5 years old. After this age most children have sufficient language and speech abilities, and any abnormalities or deficits in social communication may be more easily identified. Milder forms of SCD are not generally apparent until early adolescence (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Norbury, 2014).
Parents, teachers, and speech-language pathologists are key players in the process of mak- ing a diagnosis for SCD (ASHA, 2015d), particularly because some standardized measures do not detect functional difficulties that are evident to teachers and parents (Adams et al., 2012).
When initially screening a child for SCD, parents and teachers are carefully inter- viewed regarding the child’s normal behaviors. The child is usually observed for a period of time, and typically a hearing test is administered to make sure that hearing loss is not contributing to poor social communicative interaction (ASHA, 2015d). When children are suspected of having a communication disorder after the initial screening, they are referred to a speech-language pathologist, where the SLP and the multidisciplinary team conduct further assessments. As the speech-language pathologists assess children, they look for individual and cultural aspects of how the children orient to their own names, the amount of eye contact they engage in, how much interest they show in objects around them, their ability to engage in pretend play and imitation, their nonverbal communication, and their language development (ASHA, 2015d).
A comprehensive assessment of children with SCD includes gathering information from standardized assessments, parent/teacher child report measures, ethnographic interview- ing, analog tasks (e.g., observing the child in simulated social situations), and naturalistic observations. Upon completion of these assessments, the child may be diagnosed with a social pragmatic communication disorder, another disorder, or no diagnosis at all (if he does not meet eligibility requirements). The report should include a description of the symptoms and severity of the disorder, recommendations for intervention, and referral to other professionals as needed (ASHA, 2015d).
Standard 4 Assessment
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Because so many similarities can be seen between SCD and other disorders, it can be difficult to make a clear diagnosis (Norbury, 2014). For example, stereotyped phrases, intonation, and some nonverbal interactions may seem similar between those with SCD and those with ASD (Adams et al., 2012). It is important for multidisciplinary assessment teams to collaborate in their assessments to make accurate diagnosis or educational classification.
10-6e Interventions and Treatments for Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder Because there is great heterogeneity in the social communication skills of students with SCD, there are a number of intervention options available to help promote and develop positive social interaction (Adams et al., 2012). Treatment packages should follow a social communication approach, recognizing the “social, cognitive, and linguistic influences on pragmatics” (Adams, 2008, p. 191). Three primary components should be included with any intervention: social interaction and social understanding, pragmatics, and language processing (Adams, 2008).
Treatments related to developing positive social interactions and understanding oth- ers often include instruction and activities to help students understand social context, emotions, social cues, and nonstated social information. These treatments also focus on developing and maintaining friendships, and developing flexibility (Adams, 2008). Many software programs and tablet applications have been developed for students to learn to read facial expressions and understand the emotions of others.
Treatments related to pragmatics frequently focus on conversational turn-taking, learn- ing mechanics of conversations, matching style to context, and managing topics (Adams, 2008). For example, some students need to be taught to not ask too many questions or to not talk too much during a communicative exchange. Manuel, a junior high school student, was taught to avoid sexual topics with his female teachers and classmates.
Interventions related to language processing help students to find the right words for the situation, construct narratives, monitor comprehension, and appropriately use idiom- atic language and complex sentences (Adams et al., 2012). Students may need to learn how to make inferences—that is, how to fill in the unstated information in conversations, in ways that are developmentally appropriate (Adams, 2008). Some therapy has included direct instruction in teaching idioms and other figurative language to these students, using online resources, activity books, as well as children’s books.
These social communication skills are taught in a number of ways. Some instruction happens during one-on-one therapy with a speech-language pathologist, but that alone is not likely to help students to generalize their skills to other situations or with other people. Small-group instruction, such as social skills groups, helps students to learn and practice social communication skills and to develop friendships in more functional contexts. Research supports the use of social skills groups for improving behavioral outcomes and self-esteem, increasing social competence, and generalizing social skills (Tierney et al., 2014).
These groups can be comprised of students with similar communication difficulties, or integrated with typically developing peers who can model appropriate social communi- cation (Tierney et al., 2014). Sometimes instruction is provided within general education classrooms, with the SLP serving as a consultant to the classroom teacher or special edu- cator (Adams, 2008). Furthermore, training can occur in the home or other settings, with siblings, co-workers, and others serving as role models.
Effective treatments do not need to be conducted solely by the SLP. Evidence exists for the effectiveness of training typically developing peers and siblings to model and reinforce appropriate social skills to increase social communication of preschoolers, helping them to generalize and maintain skills across other settings (Tierney et al., 2014). Furthermore, parents and sometimes even extended family members are critical members of the treat- ment team, particularly when they are the primary caregivers and frequent communica- tion partners.
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Various treatment approaches are used to provide therapy. Behavioral approaches are used to model and reinforce appropriate communication responses, and can be used indi- vidually or in groups. Also, cognitive-behavioral approaches have some levels of evidence for effectiveness (Tierney et al., 2014). Most strategies use a variety of philosophical approaches.
One specific strategy that includes multiple approaches is the use of Social StoriesTM. This strategy explicitly teaches social skills using visual supports written as a story to teach students what to do and say in different situations. They can be written by the student or someone who knows the student well, or a number of stories are available online. They can be illustrated, or use written words combined with graphic symbols, photographs, or even vid- eotaped and watched repeatedly to match each student’s unique learning needs (Gray, 1995).
Social scripts are another strategy that focus on the student’s strengths in following rigid structures. Usually, the student or someone who knows the student well writes the script, which relates to social encounters that may be difficult for that student. For example, Merilee does not know how to ask her peers to join in a game of kickball during recess. Her teacher, under the consultation of the SLP, works with her to write a typical script of what she can say and what her peers might say in order to enter this social situation. Merilee practices this script with her teacher or other school personnel, her peers, and typically developing students. She then receives prompting, guidance, and feedback before using this script on the playground.
Another strategy to help students with SCD is video modeling. This is an observational learning technique where a student watches a video of himself or someone else engaging in appropriate social communicative interactions, then practices this skill in natural con- texts. More information on video modeling is described in Chapter 11, “Autism Spectrum Disorders.”
In addition to helping in the diagnostic or classification process, speech-language pa- thologists are critical in creating and carrying out treatment plans for children and adoles- cents with SCD. However, it requires the collaborative efforts of the whole multidisciplinary team, including the parents, to provide services across a range of circumstances, for the student to learn, maintain, and generalize the important skills learned for social com- municative competence.
10-7 Voice and Resonance Disorders This section presents information related to voice and resonance disorders, including their definitions and classifications, characteristics and prevalence, causes and risk factors, identification and assessment, and finally, interventions and treatments.
10-7a Definitions and Classifications of Voice and Resonance Disorders Voice and resonance disorders are not included in the DSM-5, as they are physiological rather than developmental or mental disorders. Voice disorders involve unusual or abnormal acoustical qualities in the sounds made when a person speaks. All voices differ significantly in pitch, loudness, and other features from the voices of others of the same gender, cultural group, and age. However, voice disorders involve acoustical qualities that are so different that they are noticeable and divert attention away from the content.
Resonance disorders occur when there is abnormal sound vibration in the oral, nasal, or pharyngeal cavities while speaking. This often leads to too little or too much nasality in one’s speech (Kummer, 2006).
10-7b Characteristics and Prevalence of Voice and Resonance Disorders Most people have experienced problems with their voices. Think of the last time you screamed so loudly at a sporting event, and then had a hoarse voice for a period of time thereafter. This is an example of having a temporary problem with one’s voice, but it is not
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Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Voice and resonance disorders A condition in which an individual habitually speaks with a voice that differs in pitch, loudness, or quality from the voices of his or her peer group.
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a voice disorder. Those with voice and resonance disorders often speak with an unusual hoarse- ness, breathiness, or nasality.
Like so many speech prob- lems, the nature of voice and res- onance disorders varies greatly. Our description provides consid- erable latitude, but also outlines general parameters of voice disor- ders often dismissed in the litera- ture: pitch, quality, and volume. An individual with a voice dis- order may exhibit problems with one or more of these factors, and
they may interfere with communication (Boone, McFarlane, Von Berg, & Zraick, 2010; Ferrand, 2012).
Appropriate pitch is efficient and is suited to the situation and the speech content as well as to the speaker’s laryngeal structure. Normal pitch permits inflection without voice breaks or excessive strain, varies as emotion and meaning change, and does not distract attention from the message. Pitch disorders take several forms. The person’s voice may have an abnormally high or low pitch, may be characterized by pitch breaks or a restricted pitch range, or may be monotonal or monopitched. Many individuals experience pitch breaks as they progress through adolescence. Although more commonly associated with young males, pitch breaks also occur in females. Such pitch breaks are a normal part of development, but if they persist much beyond adolescence, they may signal laryngeal dif- ficulties. They may be learned from certain circumstances, as when a person in a position of authority believes a lower voice pitch evokes the image of power. Organic conditions, such as a hormone imbalance, may result in abnormally high- or low-pitched voices.
The acoustical characteristics of voice and resonance quality include such factors as nasality, breathy speech, and hoarse-sounding speech. Hypernasality occurs when there is too much nasality due to the failure of the soft palate to actively close off the nasal cav- ity during speech, resulting in air and energy being lost through the nasal passage and the speaker becoming less intelligible, usually with vowels and voice oral consonants. Hyponasality or denasality is the type of voice quality experienced that has too little na- sality, usually on nasal consonants (e.g., /m/, /n/, and /ng/; Kummer, 2006), and sounds as though the child has a continual cold or a stuffy nose. People with voice disorders of hoarseness have a constant husky sound to their speech, as though they had strained their voices by yelling.
As for the final element of voice, volume is subjective. A normal voice is not habitu- ally characterized by undue loudness or unusual softness. The typical level of loudness depends greatly on circumstances. Breathiness is a voice disorder with very low volume, like a whisper; it sounds as though not enough air is flowing past the vocal cords. Some research indicates 0.12 percent of elementary school-aged students have voice disorders (McKinnon, McLeod, & Reilly, 2007).
10-7c Causes and Risk Factors of Voice and Resonance Disorders There are three main reasons that cause voice and resonance disorders: structural anoma- lies, neurological issues, and functional problems (e.g., environmental or psychological). Sometimes a combination of these factors results in voice and resonance disorders. Any one of these reasons can influence the pitch, loudness, or quality of a person’s voice, resulting in a disorder.
Hypernasality can be due to improper tissue movement in the speech mechanism, or it may result from physical flaws such as an imperfectly repaired cleft palate (Nyberg,
Hypernasality A resonance disorder that occurs when excessive air passes through the nasal cavity.
Hyponasality A resonance disorder whereby too little air passes through the nasal cavity; also known as denasality.
Denasality A voice resonance problem that occurs when too little air passes through the nasal cavity; also known as hyponasality.
Photo 10.6 Factors in voice disorders that interfere with communication are pitch, quality, and volume. A voice disorder exists when these factors, singly or in combination, cause the listener to focus on the sounds being made rather than the message to be communicated. ©
M ar
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10 -7 V O I C E A N D R E S O N A N C E D I S O R D E R S 257
Peterson, & Lohmander, 2014). Excessive hypernasality may also be learned, as in the case of certain rural dialects. Hyponasility, or the type of voice quality experienced during a head cold or hay fever, may also be a result of learning or of abnormal physical structures (Ferrand, 2012), including the presence of large tonsils (Kummer, 2006).
Voice disorders involving volume have varied causes. Voices that are excessively loud or soft may be learned through imitation, perceptions and characteristics of the environment, and even aging (Ferrand, 2012; Portone, Johns, & Hapner, 2008). An example is mimicking the soft speaking of a female movie star. Other cases of abnormal vocal intensity occur because an individual has not learned to monitor loudness. Some structural reasons that may cause issues with volume include paralysis of vocal cords, laryngeal trauma (e.g., laryngeal surgery for cancer, damage through accident or disease), and pulmonary diseases like asthma or emphysema (e.g., Chavira, Garland, Daley, & Hough, 2008; Richardson, Russo, Lozano, McCauley, & Katon, 2008). Loud speech may also be the consequence of hearing impairments or brain damage.
10-7d Identification and Assessment of Voice and Resonance Disorders Determining the extent and nature of voice and resonance disorders is difficult for various reasons. First, the determination of voice and resonance normalcy involves a great deal of subjective judgment and varies considerably with the circumstances (e.g., football games, informal conversations, or seminar discussions) and with geographical location (e.g., the West, a rural area, New England, or the Deep South). Another factor that complicates analysis of voice disorders is related to the acceptable ranges of the normal voice. Most individuals’ voices fall within acceptable ranges. Children with voice disorders are often not referred for help, and untreated problems may be persistent (Ferrand, 2012; Portone, Johns, & Hapner, 2008).
Disorders of resonance can be determined using a simple test where the speech-lan- guage pathologist places one end of a bending straw at the entrance to the child’s nose and the other end at the examiner’s ear. If while the child produces specific speech samples, the examiner can hear sound through the straw on vowel sounds, this is an indicator of hypernasality, whereas if little sound comes through the straw on nasal consonants, this is an indication of hyponasality (Kummer, 2006).
The typical process for evaluation and treatment is followed as in other disability determination. First there is a referral, followed by evaluation, diagnosis, and if eligible, treatment and evaluation.
10-7e Interventions and Treatments for Voice and Resonance Disorders The approach to treatment for a voice and resonance disorder depends on its cause, which can be structurally, neurologically, or functionally based. In cases where abnormal tissue development and/or dental structures result in unusual voice production, surgical inter- vention may be necessary. Surgery may also be part of the intervention plan if removal of the larynx is required. Such an intervention will also involve relearning communication through alternative mechanisms, including prostheses, and learning communication tech- niques to replace laryngeal verbalizations (Kosowski, Weathers, Wolfswinkel, & Ridgway, 2012). In some situations, treatment may include direct instruction to enhance the affected individual’s learning or relearning of acceptable voice production. These efforts are more difficult if the behavior has been long-standing and is well ingrained.
As is typical of interventions with other language disorders, active participation at treatment sessions and related home implementation is crucial to the success of voice therapy (Starmer, Liu, Akst, & Gourin, 2014). One important element in planning interven- tions for voice and resonance disorders is clear and open communication with the person seeking treatment (Ferrand, 2012). It is important to avoid setting unrealistic expectations about outcomes and to remember that those being treated are the ultimate arbiters of that treatment’s success.
Standard 4 Assessment
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
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C H A P T E R 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N D I S O R D E R S258
People with Communication Disorders
COMMUNITY SUPPORT FOR LIFELONG INCLUSION
Early Childhood Years Tips for Families
● Respond to babbling and other noises the young child makes with age-appro- priate verbal and vocal social engage- ment, reinforcing early verbal output.
● Do not overreact if your child is not developing speech at the same rate as someone else’s infant; great variation is found between children.
● If you are concerned about your child’s speech development, have his or her hearing tested to determine whether that source of stimulation is normal.
● Observe other areas of development to assure yourself that your child is pro- gressing within the broad boundaries of normal variation.
● If you are seeking day care or a pre- school program, search carefully for one that will provide a rich, systematic communication environment.
● Be proactive in collaborating with pro- fessionals who serve your child, such as preschool teachers, speech-language pathologists, and other relevant ser- vice providers.
Tips for Preschool Teachers
● Encourage parents to be involved in all dimensions of their child’s program, including systematic speech and lan- guage stimulation at home.
● Consider all situations and events as opportunities to teach speech and language.
● Use all occasions possible to increase the child’s vocabulary.
● Ask “wh” questions, such as what, who, when, and where, giving the child many opportunities to practice speak- ing as well as thinking.
Tips for Preschool Personnel
● Communicate with the young child and all of those who are interacting with him or her.
● Collaborate with others in providing communication instruction, under
the guidance of the licensed speech- language pathologist.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Interact with young children with com- munication disorders as you would with any others, speaking to them normally and directly modeling ap- propriate communication.
● Intervene if you encounter other chil- dren ridiculing the speech and lan- guage of these youngsters; encourage sensitivity to individual differences among your own children and other neighborhood children.
Elementary Years Tips for Families
● Stay proactively involved in your child’s educational program through active participation with the school.
● Work in collaboration with the child’s teacher on speaking practice, blend- ing it naturally into family and indi- vidual activities.
● Communicate naturally with the child; avoid “talking down” and thereby modeling the use of “simpler language.”
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● Continue collaborating with and pro- moting parents’ involvement in their child’s intervention program in what- ever manner they can participate.
● Encourage the child with communica- tion disorders to talk about events and things in his or her environment and to describe experiences in as much detail as possible.
● Use all situations possible to provide practice for the child’s development of speech and language skills.
● Promote vocabulary enhancement for the child in different topic areas.
Tips for School Personnel
● Promote an environment where all who are available and in contact with the
child are involved in communication instruction, if not directly then indirectly through interaction and modeling.
● Encourage student involvement in a wide array of activities that can also be used to promote speech and language development.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Interact with children with communi- cation disorders normally; do not focus on the speaking difficulties that may be evident.
● Support the child’s parents as appro- priate, particularly if they are strug- gling with difficult feelings about their child’s communication skills.
Secondary and Transition Years Tips for Families
● Recognize that some teenagers and young adults who still exhibit com- munication problems may perform on a lower cognitive level due to other disabilities such as autism spectrum disorders, intellectual disabilities, or multiple disabilities.
● Encourage frequent and appropriate functional communication training, including AAC strategies and devices, particularly if students engage in mal- adaptive behavior due to the inability to adequately express themselves.
● Encourage your child to make and keep genuine friendships, particularly for those who are teased and bullied due to their communication disabilities.
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● Embed communication instruction in the context of functional areas (e.g., social interactions, requests for assis- tance, choice making).
● If AAC strategies and devices are part of the student’s IEP or individualized language plan, specifically target their use in the classroom (e.g., let the stu- dent ask and answer questions using her AAC device).
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Tips for School Personnel
● Encourage students with communica- tion disorders to participate in school activities that will require a broad va- riety of skill levels in speaking (e.g., debate club, drama club).
● Collaborate with others in the school to find the best way you can contrib- ute to the student’s communication development.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● To the degree that you are comfort- able doing so, interact with children using alternative communication
approaches (e.g., sign language, ges- tures, pictures).
Adult Years Tips for Families
● Interact with the adult who has a com- munication disorder on a level that is functionally appropriate for his or her developmental level while respecting her chronological age.
Tips for Therapists or Other Professionals
● Recognize the maturity level of the person with whom you are working.
Do not assume you know the interests or inclinations of a younger client sim- ply because the individual has a com- munication difficulty.
● Encourage adults with communication disorders to develop strengths and tal- ents in their areas of choice.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Communicate in as normal a fashion as possible, given the severity and type of disorder. If the person uses AAC strategies or device, consider learning about them to the degree that you feel comfortable.
Looking Toward a Bright Future Communicating effectively with others is very important to us in nearly every aspect of our lives. Because our society places a great emphasis on interpersonal interaction, the chal- lenges people with communication disorders face are paramount and have a significant impact. And yet the future of science, understanding, and intervention is very promising.
Research standards have been developed to guide researchers and practitioners in de- termining diagnosis, as well as the level of evidence for a given intervention or set of treat- ments. Evidence-based practices are those that have converging evidence such as meta- analytic research, include designs with experimental control, avoid subjectivity and bias, include effect sizes that are deemed clinically important, and relate to interventions that are relevant and feasible for practitioners to apply (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2004). As more research is conducted that adheres to these practices, greater understanding, improved practice, and positive outcomes for individuals with communica- tion disorders are likely to occur.
10-1 Describe how the lives of people with com- munication disorders have changed since the advent of IDEA.
● Students with communication disorders now enjoy the right to be assessed by a multidisciplinary team of trained professionals to determine their eligibility for services specifically targeted at their strengths and challenges.
● For students who are eligible, free and appropriate individual- ized services are provided.
● The intent of these services is to promote optimal speech and language development of each student with identifiable com- munication disorders.
10-2 Describe the primary components of typical communication development.
● Incrementally, children learn to compose, send, receive, detect, recognize, process, understand, and interpret communicative messages.
● Gradually infants begin to coo, then babble, using some conso- nant and vowel sounds, which gradually become simple utter- ances resembling real words.
● Attention, modeling, and reinforcement play important roles in shaping infants’ and young children’s speech and language development.
Chapter Review
C H A P T E R R E V I E W
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C H A P T E R 10 C O M M U N I C AT I O N D I S O R D E R S260
● Most children 18 to 30 months of age begin to use strings of two- and three-word expressions to communicate wants and needs.
● Most children between 30 and 48 months of age have developed to the point that they can apply most of the syntactical structures of their language to communicate using six-word sentences, and they can string together six-word sentences by age 5.
● With appropriate opportunities and encouragement for speech and language development, children and youth continue to develop their prowess and capacities for many kinds of com- munication (e.g., written, verbal, nonverbal).
10-3 Describe language disorders, their preva- lence, causation, identification, and related interventions.
● Language disorders represent significant and persistent difficul- ties in students’ abilities to understand or express ideas using their natural communication system.
● Language disorders are often characterized by challenges in receptive and expressive language.
● Some individuals have aphasia—they have lost their capacity to speak and comprehend language.
● The prevalence of language delays and related disorders in chil- dren ages 2 to 7 ranges from 2.3 to 19 percent.
● Almost half of all preschoolers receiving special education ser- vices have speech or language impairments.
● Almost 20 percent of all children (ages 6 to 21) served in pro- grams for students with disabilities are categorized as having speech or language impairments.
● Causes of language disorders are associated with neurological damage, significantly deficient or disrupted opportunities for learning speech and language, sensory and physiological im- pairments, and, in cases of aphasia, brain injury.
● Identification of language disorders begins with referral pro- vided by parents and others, including preschool personnel, teachers, and others.
● A variety of observations and assessment tools are used to gather typical language samples in formal and informal settings (e.g., home, school).
● Interventions begin with an individualized language plan for addressing both strengths and challenges.
● This plan may include carefully selected technologies, the use of augmentative and alternative communication strategies or devices, and specific treatments provided by licensed clinicians and specialists.
10-4 Describe speech sound disorder, its preva- lence, causation, identification, and related interventions.
● Speech sound disorders are characterized by persistent chal- lenges with speech sound production—these challenges in- terfere with the intelligibility of speech produced by children and adults.
● Speech sound disorders include problems with articulation (making sounds) and phonological processes (sound patterns).
● Approximately 1 percent of elementary-aged students have speech sound disorders.
● Speech sound disorders are believed to develop for three pri- mary reasons: structural, neurological, and functional.
● Identification and assessment of speech sound disorders oc- cur in similar ways as for language disorders: formal and infor- mal observations in a variety of settings, formal assessments, and so on.
● Interventions include treatments for physical abnormalities, no treatments (i.e., waiting for normal development to take its cor- rective course), integrating articulation training with relevant instruction, teaching and relearning certain speaking acts, and regular and focused speech therapy.
10-5 Describe child onset fluency disorder, its prevalence, causation, identification, and related interventions.
● Child onset fluency disorder (stuttering) is characterized by disruptions of the production of speech sounds.
● This disorder often causes children, youth, and adults to have anxiety about speaking to and with others.
● Prevalence rates indicate that approximately 6 percent of the general population experience stuttering at some point in their lives.
● About 1 percent of children between ages 3 and 17 evidence child onset fluency disorder.
● Boys are three to four times more likely to develop stuttering than girls.
● Causes of stuttering include: genetic inheritance, brain injury, other sensory deficits such as hearing impairments, and some medications.
● Certain environmental factors may worsen the stuttering. ● Care is taken to determine the severity of the stuttering; to as- sess the settings in which the stuttering is absent, diminished, or elevated; the emotional and social impact on affected individu- als; and to assess the response of others (e.g., peers, teachers, parents) to the stuttering.
● Most individuals with child onset fluency disorder receive more than one type of treatment, including approaches such as direct behavior therapy, regulation of breathing, modeling, self- monitoring, counseling, medication, speech-rhythm therapy, and participation in support groups.
10-6 Describe social (pragmatic) communication disorder, its prevalence, causation, identification, and related interventions.
● Individuals with social (pragmatic) communication disorder (SCD) experience significant difficulties in the social use of language.
● Behaviors associated with this disorder include difficulties in applying and using the social rules and appropriate be- haviors associated with communicative interchanges with others.
● There are no reliable prevalence rates for SCD, mainly because symptoms of this disorder overlap with other conditions.
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● Causes associated with SCD are varied, including genetic inheri- tance, associations with other identifiable disabilities or disor- ders, and the causes that give rise to them.
● Identification begins with interviews with key care providers (e.g., parents, teachers) to obtain their observations about the child’s social interactions.
● Often hearing tests are completed to rule out any hearing impairments.
● Observations are made by a speech-language pathologist, ob- serving the child’s responsiveness in these and other areas: eye contact, interest in objects in the immediate environment, and patterns of play and imitation.
● Interventions center on teaching positive social interactions, pragmatics, and language processing. These interventions are taught in various ways.
10-7 Describe voice and resonance disorders, their prevalence, causation, identification, and related interventions.
● Voice disorders involve unusual or abnormal acoustical quali- ties in the sounds made when children, youth, or adults speak.
● Resonance disorders relate to abnormal sound vibration in the oral, nasal, or pharyngeal cavities while speaking.
● Voice disorders affect only 0.12 percent of elementary-aged students.
● Main causes for voice and resonance disorders include struc- tural anomalies, neurological issues, and functional problems— any of these may influence the pitch, quality, and volume of a person’s voice.
● Identification of voice and resonance disorders is challeng- ing given the subjective nature of some of the required judgments.
● Like identification processes associated with communication assessments, formal and informal observations are made, ap- propriate assessments are provided, and determinations are made about potential interventions and services.
● Interventions are focused on the causes of the disorder, in- cluding surgical interventions, prostheses, direct instruction targeted at acceptable voice production, and frequent collabo- ration among and between parents, therapists, and therapy recipients.
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Standards to Accompany Chapter 10
If you are thinking about a career in special education, you should know that many states use national standards developed by the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) to assess a teacher candidate’s knowledge and skills for working with students with disabilities. See a complete listing of the seven CEC Content Standards on the inside cover of this text.
1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
2 Learning Environments 4 Assessment 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice 7 Collaboration
Mastery Activities and Assignments To master the content within this chapter, complete the following activities and assignments: 1. Complete a written test of the chapter’s content. If your
instructor requires a written test of your content knowl- edge for this chapter, keep a copy for your portfolio.
2. Review the Case Study on Embracing Diversity, “Emilio,” and respond in writing to the Application Questions.
Keep a copy of the Case Study and your written response for your portfolio.
3. Participate in a community service learning activity. Community service is a valuable way to enhance your learning experience. Develop a reflective journal of the service learning experience for your portfolio.
C H A P T E R R E V I E W
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CHAPTER 11
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Learning Objectives After you complete this chapter, you will be able to:
11-1 Describe how the lives of people with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have changed since the advent of IDEA.
11-2 Explain the various definitions and classification of ASD.
11-3 Describe the characteristics and prevalence of children and youth with ASD.
11-4 List the causes and risk factors associated with ASD.
11-5 Describe the assessment procedures used to identify ASD in children and youth.
11-6 Describe the different interventions for children and youth with ASD from early childhood through adulthood.
© 2
01 5
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ag e
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®
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SNAPSHOT Diagnosing “C”
Co ur
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A Blog by Abbey Marshall When C was 13 months old I started to notice something was a little off about him. Was he a little behind? Was he just different from the rest of my other children? I remember look- ing up signs of autism on the Internet and he seemed to fit some of the crite- ria but I still wasn’t sure. I confronted my husband and asked him what he thought and he just disregarded it and told me not to worry about it. Three months later things had started to progress and people were starting to make comments and ask questions about little C. I was seriously start- ing to look up the signs of autism at this point. This time I printed the list off and handed it to my husband after the kids had gone to bed and we had a serious conversation about what was going on with C. I still remem- ber the look on my husband’s face; it was almost blank as if he knew something was going on. Neither one of us wanted to really talk about it because if we did we were admitting that something was wrong. So many questions popped into my head: the how’s, why’s, and so on and so on. Then my heart sank, not that my kid might have autism but I knew that things were going to change for us. Our life was going to take a huge turn.
A couple of weeks after digesting the conversation with my husband, I realized that C had a doctor’s appoint- ment coming up. I decided I would talk to him about C and what he thought.
When we showed up to the doctor, he asked me if I had any concerns so far and then I slowly brought up the idea that C is showing signs of autism. My doctor said, “Ok, let’s have you take a test for him.” He handed me what they called an M-CHAT test. It’s a bunch of questions about your child to see where they are developmentally, and several questions that would go along with autism: Does your child flap his hands? Will he look when you point at something? Does your child point at things? Will your child make eye contact for X amount of time? And so on. As I was answering all of these questions, I wanted so badly to just lie and mark that everything was ok, but I just couldn’t do it. I handed the test back to the doctor, and he looked
over it for quite some time. He then said, “C is showing several signs of AUTISM.” There it was: the word that I knew I didn’t want to hear. Suddenly I lost it. I didn’t want to cry in front of the doctor nor my son. I wanted to be this strong mom that could take on anything, but in that moment I broke and realized that I wasn’t the only one saying that word, AUTISM. Then my doctor quickly grabbed his nurse (probably worried that I was going to go all psycho in the office) and asked her to grab the packet of papers that went along with autism. There was that word again, AUTISM. He slowly sat beside me and said, “Everything is going to be okay.” He handed me the packet and told me to please call him if I had any questions and if he could do anything to just call him.… He told me to take my time in the room and to come out when I was ready. I felt like I sat there for an hour, trying to compose myself and trying really hard to not look like I just went two rounds with Mike Tyson in there. I somehow made it out to my car with little C, and we called dad with the news.
A couple of hours later I received a phone call from C’s doctor asking if I was okay and saying he was worried about me. I was so grateful for that phone call. I knew that we had one more person in our corner and another person to love C as much as we do.
SOURCE: Marshall, Abbey. (2014). “Is there a chance C has autism?” C is for Autism (blog). www.cisforautism
.blogspot.com/2014_10_01_archive.html.
11-1 A Changing Era in the Lives of People with Autism Spectrum Disorders Although most people nowadays know or have interacted with someone with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD), this widespread awareness is a relatively recent phenomenon. Au- tism was first described in the early 1800s (Volkmar & Wiesner, 2009), but the term autism was not used until the early 1900s, when Johns Hopkins University psychiatrist Leo Kanner wrote his seminal paper describing children with “autistic disturbances of affective contact”
11-1 A C H A N G I N G E R A I N T H E L I V E S O F P E O P L E W I T H AU T I S M S P E C T R U M D I S O R D E R S
“C” Today
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C H A P T E R 11 A U T I S M S P E C T R U M D I S O R D E R S264
(Kanner, 1943, p. 217). Research conducted during subsequent decades focused on etiol- ogy, and in some cases blamed “cold, refrigerator mothers” for causing their child’s autism, encouraging treatment that separated children from their mothers (Bettelheim, 1967).
It wasn’t until the passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 that children with autism were permitted a free and appropriate public education. However, autism was not yet a distinct educational category, so these students were served under disability labels that were then called mental retardation and serious emotional disturbance, often being taught by teachers who were not trained to meet their unique needs. When federal law recog- nized autism as a disability category in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (IDEA), services became more widely available to students with autism and their families.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, autism was no longer considered to be only a condition that severely limited individuals’ behavior, communication, and intellectual functioning; it began to be viewed as a disorder with a broad range of functioning, including those with extraordinary talents such as those with savant syndrome (Treffert, 2009). The 1981 English translation of Hans Asperger’s 1944 paper describing a condition later to be named Asperger’s syndrome brought greater awareness of the unique strengths of some indi- viduals with ASD (Asperger, 1944). But popular media, most notably the 1988 movie Rain Man, starring Dustin Hoffman as an institutionalized adult with autism, raised aware- ness beyond the research and educational communities. Autism became a household word.
Today, autism and Asperger’s syndrome are considered to be autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and have received significant attention from both the academic world and popular media. More than ever, popular media includes individuals with ASD, with actors playing characters with the condition as well as entertainers diagnosed with ASD or self-identifying their autistic symptoms, such as Jerry Seinfeld in a 2014 interview on NBC Nightly News. Because ASD is not always portrayed realistically, users are cautioned to not rely solely on popular media as reliable sources of knowledge regarding ASD (Draaisma, 2009; Dyches, Prater, & Leininger, 2009). The Council for Exceptional Children’s Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities has developed guidelines for evaluating the quality of depictions of characters with ASD and other developmental disabilities and biennially presents the Dolly Gray Children’s Literature Award to the best picture books and adolescent/young adult books that realistically portray characters with developmental disabilities, including ASD. A list of award winners as well as all books considered for this award is found on the Dolly Gray Award website. See Table 11.1 for examples of recent popular media depictions of individuals with ASD or who have autistic characteristics.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Savant syndrome A rare and extraordinary condition in which unusual skills are performed, usually in one of five areas: music, art, calculating, mathematics, and mechanical or spatial skills, characterized by obsessive preoccupation with specific items or memorization of facts, trivia, sequences, or patterns that are in stark contrast to the developmental level of the individual, including splinter skills, extraordinary talents, and prodigious savant skills.
Asperger’s syndrome A condition that shares unusual social interactions and behaviors with autism, but historically has included no general language delay. It is no longer given as an initial diagnosis, but may be incorporated into the diagnosis of ASD.
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) A range of functioning among many dimensions related to social communicative and social interactive functioning, with restricted and repetitive repertoire of behavior, interests, or activities.
Table 11.1 Examples of Individuals with ASD or Autistic-Like Symptoms in Popular Media
Picture Books My Brother Charlie by Holly Robinson Peete and Ryan Elizabeth Peete Understanding Sam and Asperger Syndrome by Clarabelle van Niekerk & Liezl Venter, MA CCC-SLP
Adolescent Books Al Capone Does My Shirts by Gennifer Choldenko The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time by Mark Haddon
Memoirs of an Imaginary Friend by Matthew Dicks
Mockingbird by Kathryn Erskine
Remember Dippy by Shirley Reva Vernick
Comics Black Manta in DC Comics
Manga Hikaru Azuma in With the Light: Raising an Autistic Child
Movies Autism: The Musical Dear John
Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close
The Horse Boy
Temple Grandin
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11-2 D E F I N I T I O N S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F AU T I S M S P E C T R U M D I S O R D E R S 265
11-2 Definitions and Classification of Autism Spectrum Disorders Several definitions have been used to describe autism spectrum disorders, and when these individuals are students, they may receive an educational classification of autism in order to receive special education services. The following sections will describe these definitions and educational classifications.
11-2a Definitions of Autism Spectrum Disorders Historically, many terms have been used to describe the condition we now call autism spectrum disorders: autism, infantile autism, atypical autism, high-functioning autism, Asperger’s syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder, among others. Some are diagnostic terms while others are used for convenience.
Individuals are diagnosed by a medical professional such as a psychologist or psychia- trist based upon the criteria designated in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). This diagnostic manual has undergone several revisions since its first edition in 1952. Initially, autism was incorrectly associated with childhood schizophrenia; it was not mentioned as a separate diagnosis until 1980. The fourth edition of the DSM used the umbrella term pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) to characterize those with five specific conditions (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The most recent edition (the DSM-5) changed the terminology to autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to reflect the variability within the diagnosis and be- cause distinctions have been inconsistent over time. It also removed the diagnostic label of Asperger’s syndrome. Table 11.2 includes the various names used by the DSM over time to describe autism.
Currently, ASD is defined as the early presence of a dyad of persistent deficits that are present early in a child’s life and that cause clinically significant impairment in everyday functioning in multiple contexts. The dyad of deficits includes (1) social communication and social interaction; and (2) restrictive, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.
Many individuals with ASD have disabilities as well as strengths along a spectrum of other characteristics such as gross and fine motor skills, measured IQ, and sensory sen- sitivities. For example, while one child with ASD might be highly verbal, socially quirky, awkward in physical movements, hypersensitive, intellectually gifted, and engages in repetitive self-calming behavior, another child with ASD might be nonverbal, socially self-absorbed, physically agile, hyposensitive, destructive to self and others, with a low IQ. Many different combinations of characteristics within the spectrum are possible. Figure 11.1 illustrates this concept of the autism spectrum. Examples of symptoms across the spectrum in very young children can be viewed on the Autism Speaks website. These videos give parents and practitioners examples of the “red flags” they may see in children suspected of having ASD. Table 11.3 profiles several school-aged children and youth, showing the diverse range of ability within the autism spectrum.
Table 11.1 Examples of Individuals with ASD or Autistic-Like Symptoms in Popular Media (continued)
TV Shows Sheldon Cooper in The Big Bang Theory Temperance Brennan in Bones
Gil Grissom in CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
Abed Nadir in Community
Max Braverman and Hank Rizzoli in Parenthood
Video Games Patricia Tannis in Borderlands 2 David Archer in Mass Effect 2
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
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Some argue that Asperger’s syndrome is a distinct disorder; others contend it is a higher-functioning version of autism. A review of the literature implies several overlaps between the two disorders, with the existence of some finer differences in motor skills, speech patterns, and the nature of social interactions (Sharma, Woolfson, & Hunter, 2011). The DSM-5 attempted to resolve this issue by making it clear that those who have well- established diagnoses under DSM-IV should qualify under the current edition, and those
Figure 11.1 The Autism Spectrum
Intellectual DisabilityGifted Aggressive, Destructive Odd
NonverbalAwkward
Agile Highly Verbal
Communication
Social
Motor
Sensory
Behavior
Measured IQ
Self-AbsorbedHyposensitive
Hypersensitive Quirky
Table 11.2 Terms Used in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) to Describe Autism Spectrum Disorders
Edition Year Diagnostic Labels
I 1952 Schizophrenic reaction, childhood type
II 1968 Schizophrenia, childhood type
III 1980 Infantile autism
III-R 1987 Autistic disorder
IV 1994 Pervasive developmental disorders
Autistic disorder
Rett’s disorder
Childhood disintegrative disorder
Asperger’s disorder
Pervasive developmental disorder—Not otherwise specified
5 2013 Autism spectrum disorder
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11-2 D E F I N I T I O N S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F AU T I S M S P E C T R U M D I S O R D E R S 267
who do not meet criteria for ASD are to be evaluated for social (pragmatic) communication disorder, a separate disorder that is manifested by functional limitations due to ongoing difficulties in using verbal and nonverbal communication. See Chapter 10, “Communication Disorders,” for more information on social (pragmatic) communication disorders.
11-2b Educational Classification of Autism Spectrum Disorders Although medical diagnoses are important for families to obtain appropriate services and available insurance coverage, school personnel are not required to rely on DSM diagnoses to serve students with ASD. If a child is suspected of having ASD, the multidisciplinary team must evaluate that child to determine if he or she has a disability that adversely impacts the student’s progress in the general curriculum and by reason thereof requires special education. It is important to note that, depending on the state in which the family lives, the child may not need to have a medical diagnosis to qualify for an educational classification of autism (MacFarlane & Kanaya, 2009). Conversely, when students diagnosed with ASD are experiencing success in school so that their educational progress is not significantly impacted, they may not qualify for special education services. Such students may be served with an accommodation plan, also called a 504 plan, with services provided by the general classroom teacher, rather than the special education teacher.
The law governing educational classification of students with ASD, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA), employs the following definition of autism:
Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, that adversely affects educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmen- tal change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. (34 C.F.R. 300.8(c)(1))
Table 11.3 Social and Communication Skills Associated with Behaviors, Interests, and Activities
Social Communication and Social Interaction Skills
Restricted, Repetitive Patterns of Behavior, Interests, or Activities
Three-year-old Nobuo uses both immediate and delayed echolalia. When asked, “What do you want?” he replies, “What do you want?” He often sings jingles from TV commercials.
Three-year-old Nobuo bites his wrist to the point of bleeding when he is prevented from getting what he wants. He appears to not feel any pain.
Seven-year-old Martina can say please, cookie, and want, and uses rudimentary sign language to communicate other wants and needs.
Seven-year-old Martina rocks back and forth for long periods of time if she is not redirected. She also toe walks and flaps her hands when she is excited.
Ten-year-old Jonell uses the paraeducator’s hand as a tool to get a desired object rather than reaching for the object himself.
Ten-year-old Jonell appears to not notice when his peer tutor approaches his desk. Jonell continues to watch the spinning Frisbee he brought in from recess.
Eleven-year-old Brantley does not speak, but uses an iPad with special software to communicate his wants and needs, share his ideas, tell jokes, interact with friends, and complete his grade-level homework.
Eleven-year-old Brantley becomes anxious when his classmates touch him on the shoulder and ask him to play. He averts his eyes from their gaze and responds to them by typing on his iPad.
Fifteen-year-old Rory tries to engage his friends in conversations by telling them facts about his special interests, such as “Did you know that Saturn is known as the ‘jewel of the solar system’ and that it is nothing like our very own planet Earth?”
Fifteen-year-old Rory insists that his friends watch him play video games during their lunch break. When they refuse, he squeezes himself into his locker to “get away from those ignorant fools.”
Eighteen-year-old Esther refers to herself in the third person, using phrases such as, “Esther wants to watch TV now.”
Eighteen-year-old Esther becomes highly anxious when she has a substitute bus driver, teacher, or paraeducator. Agitated, she paces the room for long periods of time and repeats, “Esther wants the regular people.”
© 2017 Cengage Learning
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
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The IDEA definition is based largely upon the DSM-IV criteria; however, because it is stated generally, there is great variability from state to state and district to district in how students along the autism spectrum are classified (MacFarlane & Kanaya, 2009). It is the responsibility of the multidisciplinary team to determine if students qualify for services under the educational classification of autism, under another category, or if they qualify for accommodations under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.
11-3 Characteristics and Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders This section will discuss the characteristics, associated conditions, unique strengths, and prevalence of autism spectrum disorders.
11-3a Characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorders The two primary distinguishing features of individuals with ASD are their deficits in social communication/social interaction and their restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, inter- ests, or activities. Some people with ASD also have other conditions that will be discussed in the following sections.
Social Communication and Social Interaction Skills Individuals with ASD have persistent deficits in social skills involving communication and interactions with others. These social skills are interrelated and are hallmark features of people with ASD.
Typical social communication impairments for those with ASD include difficulties with social–emotional reciprocity. For example, while some with ASD do not respond to their name being called, others struggle to engage in back-and-forth conversations.
Those with Asperger’s syndrome and high-functioning autism have difficulties primar- ily with the social components of using language, specifically related to social-emotional reciprocity. They may engage in inappropriate turn taking, make poor judgments about how much or how little to say, struggle with taking another person’s perspective, and ask inappropriate questions during conversations (Paul, Orlovski, Marcinko, & Volkmar, 2009). Often considered to be “little professors,” students with Asperger’s syndrome are often exceptionally bright, but use high-level or awkward vocabulary rather than the slang or common language their peers use (e.g., a teenage boy saying to a peer, “I am very pleased to meet you,” rather than “Hey”).
Although some people with ASD avoid social contact, many still yearn for friends and social interactions but are challenged by developing and keeping rewarding relationships. They may have a significantly abnormal social approach with limited or no initiation of social interactions or sharing of interests with others.
Impaired nonverbal elements include difficulty using and understanding gestures, body language, and facial expressions. For example, while other students respond readily to the
“teacher look” when they are misbehaving, children with ASD may have difficulty under- standing the interpretation of this emotional means of communication, because they find it hard to process and understand facial and vocal emotion in others (Stewart, McAdam, Ota, Peppé, & Cleland, 2013).
Speech is an element of verbal communication that may be impaired in children with ASD. The variation of speech abilities in those with ASD ranges from being completely absent to having overly formal speech with difficulties managing topics, reciprocity, and intonation (Paul et al., 2009). Approximately 30 percent of those with autism do not de- velop functional speech (Wodka, Mathy, & Kalb, 2013). Many who do speak often engage in unusual stereotypical speech, such as echolalia, where they repeat or “echo back” what has been said to them or what they have heard previously, such as lines from a favorite movie. Additionally, the tonal quality of their speech is often unusual or flat with little variation in pitch or volume; in some cases, their speech appears to serve the purpose of self-stimulation rather than communication.
Language skills are another aspect of verbal ability that is often impaired in children with ASD. They may exhibit an uneven level of development between their cognitive
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Echolalia Imitation or repetition of words that have been spoken, either immediate or delayed.
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11- 3 C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S A N D P R E VA L E N C E O F AU T I S M S P E C T R U M D I S O R D E R S 269
abilities and their receptive and expressive language skills, and fail to use pronouns in speech directed at other people (Tiegerman-Farber, 2009; Weismer, Lord, & Esler, 2010), preferring to call people by their names, and sometimes their full names, even when they know them quite well. They may fail to grasp grammatical complexity and make little use of semantics in sentence structure (Perkins, Dobbinson, Boucher, Bol, & Bloom, 2006). Although not inherent to the diagnosis, many with ASD engage in aggressive behaviors, often due to their inability to communicate verbally (Kanne & Mazurek, 2011).
Many with ASD tend to use and understand language that is concrete and literal. Words that depend upon contextual factors for understanding meaning such as homonyms (e.g., which for witch), pronouns, jokes, sarcasm, and figurative language are often difficult to interpret. The Snapshot on Krista illustrates how an individual with Asperger’s syndrome interprets language literally.
Restricted, Repetitive Patterns of Behavior, Interests, or Activities In addition to social impairments, individuals with ASD exhibit stereotyped or repetitive pat- terns of behavior, interests, or activities. This is another hallmark feature and can include four types of patterns: repetitive use of objects, speech, or movements; inflexibility; fixated interests; and sensory sensitivities (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Repetitive Motor Movements, Use of Objects, or Speech Individuals with ASD engage in patterns of movement, use of objects, and speech that are stereotypical or repeti- tive. Typical motor repetitions include flicking hands in front of their faces, flapping hands, rocking, and spinning (Bruns & Thompson, 2012). These repetitive behaviors are some- times termed stereotypic behavior or self-stimulation and may continue for a few seconds or, if unattended, for hours. Some behaviors that seem to start as stereotypy or self- stimulation may worsen or take different forms, creating the potential for injury. Examples include hair pulling, face slapping, biting, and head banging (Cannon, Kenworthy, Alexander, Werner, & Anthony, 2011). Behavior that becomes self-injurious is more often found in low-functioning children and can understandably cause concern and stress for parents and others around them (Butrimaviciute & Grieve, 2014).
Stereotypic behavior Behavior or stereotypy involving repetitive movements such as rock- ing, hand flicking, or object manipulation.
Self-stimulation Repetitive body movements used to stimulate one’s senses. Often colloquially referred to as “stimming.”
Everything is literal to my daughter, Krista. When she was 5, I said that she had “rats” in her hair. She began screaming, “Get them out!” I ex- plained that people say that when you have knots in your hair. A few days later she asked me to get the knots out of her hair, but one knot was really bad. When I told her I couldn’t get the knot out, she informed me that the knot must be “double-knotted.”
When she was 8, my husband said, “I have a backache.” She began to argue with him, informing him that he didn’t have a backache. The argument was getting pretty heated, so I asked my husband to stop and see what she
meant. I asked her why she thought Dad didn’t have a backache. She grabbed his hands and said, “Look,
there is nothing in his hands!” To her, “to have” meant that your hands had to be holding an object. She didn’t understand a more abstract meaning of “have,” where your body could pos- sess something such as a backache.
Moments like these continue, even though she is now 15. She was visiting a friend and was told to come home at 6:30. The rest of the family got home at 7:00 and she wasn’t there. When we asked her about it she said,
“But I did come home at 6:30! Then I went back.”
SOURCE: Copyright © Jennifer M. Fletcher. Reprinted with permission.
SNAPSHOT Krista: A Girl with Asperger’s Syndrome
Co ur
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Individuals with ASD may use objects in a stereotypic way, such as spinning objects and playing with objects in an unusual and repetitive manner. For example, when given a toy truck to play with, instead of pushing the truck along the ground, a child with ASD may turn the truck upside down and spin the wheels for long periods of time. Often, items must be arranged in a symmetrical or orderly fashion to seem proper to those with ASD. They may line up their toys in a particular way or keep items in their desk in an organized fashion, becoming distraught or panicked if their items are moved or disrupted.
Stereotypical or ritualized language includes echolalia where the person says the same words, phrases, or scripts repetitively. Other children may use idiosyncratic language, which may not be known to others except for knowledgeable communicative partners such as their family members or teachers. For example, a child may say, “Wanna push?” to indicate “I want to go on the swing.” Still others may be preoccupied with certain sounds, words, phrases, or ideas, and may say them repeatedly, having difficulty switching their attention to other topics.
Although the purposes and origins of stereotypic behavior are not well understood, for some, such activity may provide sensory input whereas for others it may provide a sense of organization. Stereotypic behavior is one area, among others, where autobio- graphic material by high-functioning individuals with ASD may significantly enhance our understanding (Koegel & Koegel, 2012). Classic autobiographies and memoirs that describe these behaviors include Emergence: Labeled Autistic by Temple Grandin and Margaret M. Scariano, Nobody Nowhere by Donna Williams, and There’s a Boy in Here by Judy Barron and Sean Barron. Many more books and other personal accounts, including through social media and podcasts, have been produced since these accounts were first published, giving people insights regarding the personal experiences of those with autism.
Inflexibility Intense and rigid insistence on sameness, inflexible adherence to routines, or ritualized patterns of verbal/nonverbal behavior are characteristic of those with ASD. Occur- ring among a spectrum of severity, a mild case might include repetitive questioning (e.g., “Is the fire drill today?”), distress at small changes (e.g., substitute teacher, change in the arrangement of desks, unannounced school assembly), or insistence on a particular food for a given meal (e.g., pizza for school lunch only on Fridays). Extreme adherence to rituals and routines may lead to “meltdowns” or uncontrollable tantrums if a familiar routine is disrupted.
Fixated Interests Unusually intense and focused interests that are highly restricted are common for individuals with ASD. They may be fixated on certain topics, objects, or activi- ties. These interests are abnormally intense and can be all-consuming. Some have an unusually strong attachment to or preoccupation with certain objects such as trains, string, or maps. They may have a preoccupation with parts of objects such as the wheels on a toy car or the blades of a toy helicopter.
Others may have excessively narrow interests that they continue to explore or discuss. Such extreme focus on these circumscribed interests is often called perseveration. For example, verbal children with ASD may investigate with great intensity and perseverance specialized topics such as the list of all passengers on the Titanic, and attempt to share their knowledge with anyone who will listen.
Some people with ASD wash themselves, collect certain items, and demand sameness in a manner reminiscent of those with obsessive-compulsive disorder (Zandt, 2007). However, ASD and obsessive-compulsive disorder are two distinct conditions and require different treatment protocols (Leininger, Dyches, Prater, & Heath, 2010).
Sensory Sensitivities People with ASD may have hyper- or hypo-responsivity to particu- lar elements in the environment, or they may have unusual interests in sensory aspects of the environment. These sensory-processing responses can be manifest in any sensory area: sight, hearing, smell and taste, touch, balance, body position/awareness, and pain. Those who are hypo-responsive appear to be unresponsive to stimuli such as pain, heat, or cold. Hyper-responsive (hypersensitive) children have an exaggerated reaction to a stimulus, such as covering one’s ears when the school bell rings, when a vacuum is turned on, or
Perseveration An extreme focus on circumscribed interests, topics, or activities.
Hypo-responsive A low degree of reaction to a stimulus, such as a physical or emotional stimulus.
Hyper-responsive A high degree of reaction to a stimulus, such as a physical or emotional stimulus.
Standard 2 Learning Environments
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11- 3 C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S A N D P R E VA L E N C E O F AU T I S M S P E C T R U M D I S O R D E R S 271
when a toilet is flushed. Some textures may bother them, leading them to wear only certain articles of clothing, or demanding that the tags from their shirts be removed. They may also be bothered by physical touch. These sensitivities are likely to last into adulthood and should be considered when designing sensory-friendly work, home, and other environments (Tavassoli, Miller, Schoen, Nielsen, & Baron-Cohen, 2014).
Such restricted patterns of behaviors create numerous problems for people with ASD as well as their families. For example, most people pay little attention to the exact route they take when driving to the grocery store, or to the precise pattern of moving through the store once they arrive. For parents who take their child with ASD along, minor deviations may cause a serious crisis for the child as well as the parent. One mother indicated that while being out in the community with her child, she “grew immune to the stares and thoughtless comments from casual observers, such as, ‘That girl is evil’ or ‘Your child is so rude’” (Smith, 2007, p. 324).
It is important to remember that we all engage in repetitive behavior that may be self- soothing or that provides other types of sensory feedback to the nervous system. Do you frequently chew on your pencil? Bite your fingernails? Wrap your hair around your finger? Wiggle your foot when sitting cross-legged? These are all self-stimulatory behaviors, but most people do not engage in these behaviors with the intensity and duration as do those with ASD, nor is it as limiting and all-encompassing. The poem by Mayer Shevin highlights the way language can be used inappropriately when describing behaviors that are common between people with and without disabilities. See Figure 11.2.
11-3b Other Conditions Associated with Autism Spectrum Disorders Many children with ASD have other conditions that impact their daily functioning, com- monly described as “comorbid” conditions. This term implies a condition separate from the primary diagnosis, but in the case of ASD, it may be difficult to differentiate between conditions, as many symptoms of a secondary diagnosis can be typical features of ASD. These co-occurring conditions include developmental, mental health, and medical condi- tions. Approximately four out of five young children with ASD have at least one other condition, making accurate diagnosis difficult (Levy et al., 2010).
Developmental Conditions Developmental disorders are the most frequently co- occurring condition with ASD. Most commonly, these include language disorders, ADHD, and intellectual disabilities (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), but can also include motor coordination difficulties, hyperactivity, and other maladaptive behaviors (Bolton, Golding, Emond, & Steer, 2012; Stacy et al., 2014). Intellectual ability varies among those with ASD, and high-functioning individuals may test at a normal level or gifted range
Us Them We like things. We try to make friends. We take breaks. We stand up for ourselves. We have hobbies. We choose our friends wisely. We persevere. We like people. We go for a walk. We insist. We change our minds. We have talents. We are human.
They fixate on objects. They display attention-seeking behavior. They display off-task behavior. They are noncompliant. They self-stim. They display poor peer socialization. They perseverate. They have dependencies on people. They run away. They tantrum. They are disoriented and have short attention spans. They have splinter skills. They are…?
Figure 11.2 The Language of Us and Them by Mayer Shevin
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C H A P T E R 11 A U T I S M S P E C T R U M D I S O R D E R S272
(Koegel & Koegel, 2012). Approximately half have average or above-average intellectual ability, compared to approximately one-third of children surveyed a decade ago (Bolton et al., 2012; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2014). However, IQ testing may not be valid for these children, because most intelligence tests rely on verbal and reasoning skills that may mask their intellectual capabilities.
Mental Health Conditions Mental health or psychiatric disorders are found among many children with ASD. Young children may be diagnosed with conditions such as oppositional defiant disorder, anxiety disorder, emotional disturbance, obsessive-compulsive disorder, among other conditions (Levy et al., 2010; Stacy et al., 2014). Children and adoles- cents with ASD are at an increased risk for depression and anxiety symptoms (Strang et al., 2012).
Medical Conditions Neurological and other medical conditions also occur in chil- dren with ASD. Most common is epilepsy, affecting up to 46 percent (Viscidi et al., 2014). Although relatively rare, conditions such as fragile X syndrome, tuberous sclerosis, and 15q duplication syndrome have also been found in children with ASD (Abrahams & Geschwind, 2008; Levy et al., 2010).
11-3c Unique Strengths Some individuals with ASD have savant syndrome, or “spectacular ‘islands of genius’ in jarring juxtaposition to overall limitations” (Treffert, 2014, p. 564). Most common are the
“splinter skill savants” who are preoccupied with information such as historical facts, sports trivia, or train schedules. The “talented savants” are those who have musical, art, or other talents such as hyperlexia that are not only remarkable in light of their disabilities, but also compared to their peers. The third type includes the rare “prodigious savants” who are prodigies or geniuses (Treffert, 2014). Approximately half of those with savant syndrome have autism, and 10 percent of those with ASD have savant syndrome. Their savant skills usually occur in one of five areas: music, art, calculating, mathematics, and mechanical or spatial skills (Treffert, 2014). For example, Stephen Wiltshire, who has ASD, creates architectural drawings accurately from memory with minute detail and perfect scale and perspective after a brief flight over a city such as New York; he now has his own gallery in London and a website that highlights his work, including videos showing his incredible skills. Profiles and videos of others with savant syndrome can be found at the Wisconsin Medical Society’s Savant Syndrome website.
Parents and teachers are strongly recommended to “train the talent” rather than to suppress or eliminate these unusual skills (Treffert, 2009, p. 1,335). Instead of viewing the student’s intense fascination as perseveration that is annoying or bothersome, create learning activities in which the student can demonstrate “perseverance” in meeting the learning objectives. Strategies to capitalize on strengths, interests, and talents associated with these focused fascinations do not demand much time, but do require creative thinking and student input (Lanou, Hough, & Powell, 2012). For example, if a student is fascinated with bus schedules, teachers can use this special interest to teach geography, math, read- ing, and other subjects. These highly focused skills can become a means toward achieving normalization, socialization, and independence.
Also, the use of memory for daily purposes appears to be impaired in some individu- als with ASD (Jones et al., 2011); others seem to have relatively strong, specific long- term memory skills, particularly for factual information like names, numbers, and dates (Koegel & Koegel, 2012). Once these students have learned a piece of information, they may not forget it. Their long-term memory skills may equal or exceed those of their typically developing peers. The juxtaposition of unique skills with difficulty in social interactions is highlighted in the description of Donald T. in the nearby Reflect on This box.
11-3d Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders Challenges in determining the prevalence of people with ASD have existed ever since researchers began collecting such data. Due to numerous uncontrollable factors, it is difficult to report an accurate prevalence rate. Nevertheless, there appears to be a real increase in
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
Hyperlexia Advanced and precocious reading ability. Some children with ASD read voraciously with incredible memory for what they have read. Some may not comprehend what they have read.
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prevalence across the United States and in other countries. Although prevalence rates vary from study to study, a thorough analysis of recent epidemiological surveys estimates the prevalence of autism to be 22 to 70 per 10,000 for those along the spectrum (Saracino, Noseworthy, Steiman, Reisinger, & Fombonne, 2010), translating to approximately 1 child of 143 diagnosed with ASD.
However, the most recent report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2014) has gained much media attention, citing the prevalence of ASD in 14 U.S. sites as one out of every 68 children and one out of every 42 boys. Because studies like this do not comprise nationally representative samples, the CDC cautions that this prevalence
Donald T.: First Child Diagnosed with Autism Young Donald’s behavior was perplex- ing to his parents. While he seemed slow and backward in some areas, he also displayed sparks of brilliance. At age 1, Donald could hum and sing tunes accurately; at age 2, he could name the U.S. presidents, along with many of his ancestors and relatives. Later he could recite short poems, the 23rd Psalm, and 25 questions and answers from the Presbyterian catechism. However, at age 3, Donald did not feed himself and exhibited problematic behaviors, and his mother believed that he was “hopelessly insane.”
Following the recommendations of the family physician, Donald’s parents had him institutionalized in a Mississippi town aptly named Sanatorium. Yet after one year of institutionalization, minimal progress, and a diagnosis of “some glandular disease,” his parents took him home. Two months later, in October 1938, 5-year old Donald was examined by Austrian American psy- chiatrist Leo Kanner, who observed him not to be feebleminded, insane, or affected with schizophrenia. Donald, along with 10 other children, was de- scribed in the now-famous 1943 report as having a condition that “differs so markedly and uniquely from anything reported so far,” something Kanner called “autistic disturbance of affective contact” (Kanner, 1943, p. 217).
Donald T., as he was known in the report, was the first child reported to have autism. His parents and Dr. Kanner noted Donald’s triad of impairments
that have typically characterized a di- agnosis of autism—qualitative impair- ments in both social interaction and communication, and patterns of be- havior, activities, and interests that are restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped. When examined at age 5, Donald was described as being happiest when left alone, oblivious to his social environ- ment, and having no apparent affection to others. Although he could enunci- ate words clearly, he asked questions only in single words, parroted words and phrases from others, and repeti- tively made irrelevant utterances such as “chrysanthemum,” “dahlia, dahlia, dahlia,” and “Through the dark clouds shining.” He jumped up and down jubi- lantly while watching blocks, pans, and other round objects spin, had temper tantrums when interrupted, and had unusual body movements with his fin- gers and head.
Seventy-two years after being ex- amined by Leo Kanner, the identity of “Case 1: Donald T.” was discovered in Forest, Mississippi. Donald Gray Triplett, then 77 years old, grew up in a community of approximately 3,000 where he was educated, included, and accepted decades before the term autism became a household word. To- day, Donald is an avid golfer and world traveler. He lives alone in the home he grew up in and enjoys his morning rit- ual of drinking coffee with his friends, going for a walk, watching Bonanza reruns, then driving to the golf course for a round of golf, preferring to play by himself. He has dinner with his brother and sister-in-law every Sunday night. Still showing signs of autism, Donald’s life is tranquil, familiar, stable, and se- cure, particularly for a man with autism, and most notably for the first person diagnosed with autism.
Questions for Reflection 1. What are some of the characteristics of autism that Donald exhibited when he was a young child and as a grown man? 2. How can misdiagnosis affect indi- viduals with autism? 3. What types of adult outcomes are possible for those diagnosed with a utism today?
SOURCES: Donovan, J. & Zucker, C. (2010, October). Autism’s First Child. The Atlantic. Retrieved February 25, 2012, www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2010 /10/autism-8217-s-first-child/8227/; Kanner, L. (1943). “Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact.” Nervous Child, 2, 217–250.
REFLECT ON THIS
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rate cannot be generalized to the United States as a whole; however, the media presents these rates as if they are applicable to the nation at large, sounding out a warning cry of an autism “epidemic.” When citizens hear these statistics, they may picture individuals with the most significant of autistic symptoms. Yet, due to the broadening definition of ASD, many individuals with ASD are not profoundly affected. Furthermore, researchers question the methods used by the CDC to obtain their prevalence rates and consider it a mis- take to use these data for determining “meaningful estimates of prevalence” (Mandell & Lecavalier, 2014, p. 483).
The variation in prevalence rates is likely due to a number of factors. Current knowl- edge points to changes in diagnostic criteria, case identification, and reporting over time; variations in measurement; earlier identification; heightened awareness among parents and professionals; additional policies and services; and a true increase in the population (CDC, 2014; Hansen, Schendel, & Parner, 2015; Mandell & Lecavalier, 2014; Saracino et al., 2010). The wide range in prevalence may diminish over time as greater consensus about what constitutes ASD is achieved.
Gender differences are evident in autism; males outnumber females substantially. Estimates of these prevalence differences are typically reported to be around 5 to 1 (CDC, 2014). Some researchers attribute this gender difference to girls with autism being less socially aberrant than males, “camouflaging” their symptoms and making diagnoses more difficult, although girls with autism often have less intellectual ability (CDC, 2014; Lai et al., 2011; Nicholas et al., 2008).
Identification of ASD has been shown to vary by race and ethnicity. Some reports in- dicate greater prevalence among non-Hispanic white children than among non-Hispanic black children and Hispanic children, with Hispanic children being diagnosed later than their white, non-Latino counterparts (CDC, 2014). Evidence exists supporting the cross- cultural validity of ASD according to the DSM-5 definitions, with some variability in those with milder autistic characteristics (Mandy, Charman, Puura, & Skuse, 2014). See the “Case Study on Embracing Diversity” for more information.
It is clear that the debate over accurately determining prevalence of ASD is not ending in the near future. What is most important to teachers, however, is that more children with ASD are being served in public schools than ever before. These increases necessitate better preparation of both preservice and in-service teachers to serve students with ASD using evidence-based strategies in appropriate environments.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Identifying Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Children with ASD
CASE STUDY ON EMBRACING DIVERSITY
Recently, much attention has been paid to the differences in acquiring an ASD diagnosis and receiving appropriate services for various races and ethnicities. For example, a recent comprehensive study in Los Angeles County has found that in their sample of 7,540 children with autism, there were increased risks of being diagnosed with autism if the mothers were foreign-born and black, Central/South American, Filipino, or Vietnamese. Also, children born to U.S.-born mothers who were Hispanic or African American had a greater
likelihood of being diagnosed with au- tism than those born of U.S.-born white mothers (Becerra et al., 2015). However, other research with slightly over 100 participants indicates children of Latina mothers are diagnosed approximately one year later, have greater unmet service needs, and receive fewer specialty services than children of non-Latina mothers (Magaña, Lopez, Aguinaga, & Morton, 2013). Contributing factors to these differences were the level of education of the mothers and number of sources of information about autism.
Application Questions 1. How should professionals interpret research that may seem contradictory?
2. How might immigration status and decreased ability in speaking and understanding English contribute to racial/ethnic discrepancies in diagnosis and treatment?
3. How can school personnel pro- vide unbiased assessments to appro- priately identify and serve students with ASD?
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11-4 Causes and Risk Factors of Autism Spectrum Disorders The cause or etiology of autism has been a topic that has been a concern since Leo Kanner first described it in 1943. Although Kanner noted that a biological component might be involved, later theories implicated parenting practices, in particular, the interactions of mothers, who were described as being cold and indifferent to their children. The hypothesis was that the child would withdraw from the mother’s rejection and erect defenses against psychological pain, retreating to an inner world without contact with the outside environ- ment (Bettelheim, 1967). This psychodynamic theory has largely been refuted, although some “failure to bond” theories occasionally gain attention.
Current research points to an integrated etiology. It is well accepted that neither is there one cause nor one cure for ASD. Rather, ASD appears to be an assortment of symptoms that require varied treatments. Possible contributors to the cause of ASD include genetic, infectious, neurologic, metabolic, and immunologic factors.
Widespread media attention has led many to believe that vaccinations cause autism, theorizing that stimulation of the immune system with vaccinations results in damage to the developing brain, thereby causing abnormal neural pathway development that leads to autism. However, meta-analytic research with over one million children with ASD indicates there is no relationship between vaccinations and ASD (Taylor, Swerdfeger, & Eslick, 2014). Nevertheless, the autism–vaccination link continues to be explored by researchers.
Clearly, various causes of ASD remain unsolved puzzles in the face of ongoing research and widespread interest in the condition. Accumulated evidence has strongly implicated biological factors. Although the environment may play a role in the development of ASD, strong evidence supports a genetic link, not as a single gene that causes ASD, but as gene expression that may be stimulated by certain environmental conditions (Hall & Kelley, 2014), with common gene variants and other mutations accounting for 59 percent of the causes of ASD (Gaugler et al., 2014). Breakthrough international research has implicated 60 contributing genes, with a 90 percent risk factor of a child developing autism (DeRubeis et al., 2014). This genetic link is supported by studies citing the occurrence of autism in identical twins as 36 to 95 percent of the time and in nonidentical twins 0 to 31 percent of the time. Also, parents with one child with ASD have a 2 to 18 percent chance of having another child who also has ASD (CDC, 2014).
As with many areas of disability, an understanding of causation is important as we attempt to improve treatment. Research continues to unravel the sources of this perplex- ing disability, and improved research methodology is vital for further progress in the investigation of ASD.
11-5 Identification and Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders Throughout this book, we have discussed collaboration between multiple disciplines as we have examined other disabilities. Because of the wide variation of characteristics presented in this spectrum of disorders, the diversity of the assessment team is quite broad and may include professionals from the fields of medicine, psychology, educa- tion, speech–language pathology, occupational pathology, physical therapy, social work, counseling, and other fields, depending on the student’s presenting behaviors and needs (Cannon et al., 2011).
Often, parents are concerned about symptoms of ASD in their toddlers. Typical paren- tal concerns during the child’s first year of life are related to vision and hearing, along with social, communication, and fine motor skills. During the second year of life, parents notice red flags regarding the child’s play, imitation skills, feeding habits, and tempera- ment (Bolton et al., 2012). However, sometimes autistic characteristics do not concern parents for many years, particularly for children with high-functioning autism, because
Etiology The cause or reason a condition occurs.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 4 Assessment
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their behaviors may appear to be just “odd” or “quirky,” and their high intelligence often compensates for some of their autistic symptoms.
When parents observe their children persistently engaging in unusual and atypical behaviors, they may visit their pediatrician for evaluation. However, a thorough evalu- ation must be completed since time constraints during office visits generally prevent physicians from reaching informed conclusions about potential ASD. It is important for physicians to use formal screening tools and developmental tests to provide sufficient information for accurate referrals (Gabrielsen et al., 2015).
The diagnosis of ASD is often delayed and ranges from an average of approximately 3 to 10 years. The age of diagnosis has been decreasing over time (Daniels & Mandell, 2014). Children who have more severe autistic symptoms and whose parents show great concern and have high socioeconomic status are more likely than others to be diagnosed at younger ages. When children are diagnosed early, parents often have an ongoing relationship with their pediatrician, which puts medical professionals on the multidis- ciplinary team very early, preferably by 18 months for a child’s universal screening or at the 24- or 33-month screening (Kogan et al., 2008). These screenings should be covered through the Affordable Care Act, as most health insurance plans are no longer allowed to deny, limit, or exclude insurance coverage to any person based on a preexist- ing condition, including ASD (Johnson, Danis, & Hafner-Eaton, 2014). As of 2014, at least 38 states have passed laws that mandate coverage of services for individuals with ASD (Autism Speaks, 2014). The Snapshot of “C” illustrates the process from parental concern to diagnosis.
As a child’s evaluation begins, assessment is typically undertaken in multiple skill areas, including communication and language, intelligence, and social interaction (Anckarsater, 2006). Following the assessment process, a multidisciplinary team plans, delivers, and evaluates the interventions. From the parents’ perspective, the important outcome of this collaboration is to allow their child to receive effective and individualized service in appro- priate environments (White, Scahill, Klin, Koenig, & Volkmar, 2007). Although the nature of the multidisciplinary collaboration evolves over time as circumstances change, the need for collaboration on assessments and interventions will continue as the child grows older, reaches adolescence, and transitions into adulthood (Henault, 2006). A primary goal of these multidisciplinary teams is to facilitate post-school outcomes that the person with ASD and his family value. These might include appropriate social outlets, recreation, employ- ment, education, housing, finances, and respite care for the family (Billstedt, Gillberg, & Gillberg, 2011; Eaves & Ho, 2008).
11-6 Interventions and Treatments for Autism Spectrum Disorders For decades, there have been a wide variety of treatments, some of which have little to no empirical evidence, yet are still popular with families and in schools. Different approaches have been based on theories of causation, while others have focused on specific observ- able behaviors (National Autism Center, 2009). Significant progress has been made in providing successful interventions for people with ASD, although investigators continually emphasize the importance of further systematic research on the effectiveness of various intervention and treatment strategies. Research affirms the use of a variety of evidenced- based strategies—strategies that are tailored to the strengths as well as the challenges in- dividuals with ASD experience (National Research Council, 2001; Stahmer, Schriebman, & Cunningham, 2011).
11-6a Early Childhood Education When children with ASD are identified before age 3, they can receive early interven- tion through a provider of services to children with disabilities or delays. Some parents choose to supplement these services, or even replace them, with in-home therapy. At age 3,
Standard 7 Collaboration
Standard 4 Assessment
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
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children with ASD may qualify for early childhood special education, which can range from typical preschool programs with specialized support, to programs designed spe- cifically for students with ASD. Along with specialized instruction, most preschoolers with ASD receive speech therapy, occupational therapy, behavior management programs, learning strategies, and study skills assistance (Bitterman, Daley, Misra, Carlson, & Markowitz, 2008).
Early intervention is critical in treatment for young children with ASD. Research is replete with evidence that early, intense treatments (minimum of five hours per day) have long-lasting positive effects, particularly in the areas of measured IQ, expressive and receptive language, and adaptive behavior (Maglione, Gans, Das, Timbie, & Kasari, 2012; National Research Council, 2001; Peters-Scheffer, Didden, Korzilius, & Sturmey, 2011). To help parents and practitioners understand various treatment options, Autism Speaks has developed a Video Glossary of more than 100 video clips from actual therapy sessions with young children with ASD. The therapy sessions illustrate more than 20 treatments that focus on building skills, connecting with peers and family, and reducing challenging behaviors.
11-6b Elementary Education By age 5, children with ASD who qualify for special education will receive services as determined on their IEP. Each IEP should include statements of short- and long-term goals that relate to the two core deficits of the disorder (social communication/interaction and restrictive, repetitive behavior). IEPs and instructional plans should focus on individual strengths, interests, and talents required for maximum independence (Lanou, Hough, & Powell, 2012).
The type and amount of services, as well as location of these services, are determined by the child’s IEP team. The type of services provided often includes special education and related services such as speech, physical, and occupational therapy. Location of service delivery can range along a continuum of placements. Although some students with ASD are educated in general education classes for all or part of the day, others are self-contained in a neighborhood school or in a school designed for students with ASD. Some students receive instruction at the home, hospital, or institution, depending upon the decision the IEP team makes (Gibb & Dyches, 2015). The IEP team has the right to determine which placement allows students to be educated to the maximum extent appropriate with their nondisabled peers, with educational placement and instructional programming dependent on the student’s age and functioning level (White et al., 2007). The ultimate goal is to pre- pare all students, and not just those who have high-functioning ASD, to live high-quality lives in their home communities.
Students with high-functioning ASD may not qualify for special education in some circumstances because their disability does not significantly impact their progress in the general curriculum. These students may be served in general education settings with adaptations and accommodations provided according to a 504 plan. Other students may not be served with any special services or may be in gifted and talented education programs.
11-6c Adolescent Education and Transition to Adulthood Adolescence can be a difficult time for many students because it is a time of several life changes, increased independence, and a time to make important life decisions such as col- lege, employment, vocational training, and housing. When a student has ASD, these aspects can be increasingly difficult, particularly if they are anxious about change. Multidisciplinary teams must not leave these transitions to chance; a detailed plan must be in place, and stu- dents with ASD should be primary contributors to the plan. If a student cannot participate in a meaningful way, the student’s desires, interests, and abilities should be considered (Gibb & Dyches, 2015).
Transition planning for youth and young adults with ASD is critical because, after age 22, they no longer qualify for a free and appropriate public education. If they have not secured
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Standard 7 Collaboration
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a job or educational opportunities, there may be no state or local services available to assist them in meeting their postsecondary goals. However, those who do have effective transition plans can be successful in their lives. The example of Taylor Crowe as depicted in the Snapshot is just one example of a successful adult with ASD.
Five steps for transition planning have been developed to help adolescents with ASD move from secondary school to post-school activities:
1. Identify transition goals—postsecondary education, employment, independent living.
2. Link postsecondary goals with IEP goals—at least one IEP goal should support and align with each of the goals.
3. Troubleshoot and adjust transition and IEP goals—make goals that are measurable and encourage active participation.
4. Provide opportunities to teach skill—balance academic skills with social–emotional skill development.
5. Evaluate progress—measure student progress and make instructional decisions using these data. (Szidon, Ruppar, & Smith, 2015)
Instructional strategies for adolescents with ASD are often qualitatively similar to strate- gies for youth with ASD. For example, a recent meta-analysis indicates that behavioral treatments for concerns such as academics, problem behavior, phobic avoidance, and social, adaptive, and vocational skills demonstrate positive benefits for adolescents and adults with ASD (Roth, Gillis, & DiGennaro Reed, 2014).
11-6d Evidence-Based Practices To facilitate the success of students with ASD, multidisciplinary teams have the profes- sional responsibility to use evidence-based practices (Alexander, Ayers, & Smith, 2015). Unfortunately, the field is filled with so many interventions claiming to be effective for students with ASD that parents and professionals may be confused and frustrated in selecting the most appropriate treatments. They may rely upon what is currently avail- able or, alternatively, invest in treatments that claim to cure the condition, but have little or no empirical support. It is the professionals’ responsibility to know the current research regarding effective treatments and to verify the evidence base by analyzing student progress data. Although it is nearly impossible for practicing teachers to review the thousands of research articles on treatments for students with ASD, recent com- prehensive reviews and meta-analyses of research are good resources for staying well informed on current research.
One recent meta-analytic report investigated more than 400 studies related to inter- ventions for children, youth, and young adults with ASD related to outcomes such as social skills, communication, behavior, school readiness, and adaptive skills (Wong et al., 2015). Previous reviews and meta-analyses have been conducted, but some focus on only young children, yet the 2015 report includes interventions from ages 0 to 22. However, very few practices have been deemed evidence-based for those ages 15 to 22, specifically related to increasing skills in joint attention, cognitive performance, academics, motor skills, vocational skills, and mental health. Results indicated 27 intervention practices that met the scientific criteria for being evidence-based practices. See Table 11.4 for a list of these interventions.
Another meta-analytic research report evaluated types of behavioral treatments, rather than specific focused interventions, and found varying levels of evidence for treatments for children with ASD ages 0 to 12. The interventions with the highest posi- tive effects were those that addressed commonly associated conditions using cognitive behavior therapy (for children with at least average IQ). The interventions with moderate positive effects included early intensive behavioral and developmental interventions based upon applied behavior analysis (ABA), and play/interaction-based interventions for joint attention (Weitlauf et al., 2014).
Most educational interventions for students with ASD include communication services, behavioral strategies, visual structure and support, social skills development,
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
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Table 11.4 Evidence-Based Practices for Children, Youth, and Young Adults with ASD
● Antecedent-based intervention ● Cognitive behavioral intervention ● Differential reinforcement of alternative, incompatible, or other behavior ● Discrete trial teaching ● Exercise ● Extinction ● Functional behavior assessment ● Functional communication training ● Modeling ● Naturalistic intervention ● Parent-implemented intervention ● Peer-mediated instruction and intervention ● Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) ● Pivotal learning variables ● Pivotal response training ● Prompting ● Reinforcement ● Response interruption/redirection ● Scripting ● Self-management ● Social narratives ● Social skills training ● Structured play groups ● Task analysis ● Technology-aided instruction and intervention ● Time delay ● Video modeling ● Visual supports
Adapted from Wong, C., Odom, S. L., Hume, K. A., Cox, A. W., Fettig, A., Kucharczyk, S.…Schultz, T. R. (2015). “Evidence-Based Practices for Children, Youth, and Young Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Comprehensive Review.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2351-z
and functional skills development. Some students also receive psychological and medical interventions.
Communication Services The most critical and frequently used approach for stu- dents with ASD is the collaborative provision of social communication services. It is not solely the work of the speech-language therapist to provide students with access to appropri- ate communication devices, aids, and strategies. The classroom teacher, special educator, and others who serve the student will see fewer communicative breakdowns, tantrums, and other maladaptive behavior when they work together to use evidence-based, naturalistic in- terventions (Kane, Connell, & Pellecchia, 2010).
Because many students with ASD are nonverbal or minimally verbal, the use of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) strategies and devices are common. Examples of high-tech devices are devices dedicated for the purpose of facilitating communication, software programs for computers, and specialized appli- cations for phones, handheld devices, or tablet computers. Low-tech devices include
Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) The use of aided and unaided strat- egies (such as communication devices, sign language, gestures, and written language) to commu- nicate wants/needs, transfer infor- mation, engage in social closeness, and use social etiquette.
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communication boards and books with pictures, words, or more complex and abstract forms of communication. Some worry that the use of AAC will suppress speech; how- ever, research indicates AAC increases communication skills and speech production (Schlosser & Wendt, 2008). See the nearby Assistive Technolog y feature, “Apps for Autism,” for more information.
One frequently used inter vention for students with ASD who are nonverbal or who have little to no communicative initiation skills is the Picture Exchange Communica- tion System (PECS). This system teaches children to initiate a communicative exchange with a partner by using pictures. Meta-analytic research indicates that the use of PECS enhances the functional communication skills of children with ASD, especially preschool children, and that the students who continued in the PECS protocol phases had the most positive outcomes (Ganz, Davis, Lund, Goodw yn, & Simpson, 2012).
Behavioral Strategies Many educational and therapeutic approaches for students with ASD are based upon applied behavior analysis (ABA) principles. This model of inter- vention has been used in a wide array of circumstances within education, psychology, medi- cine, and family therapy.
ABA is used in educational contexts by breaking large tasks into small, manageable parts and reinforcing successive approximations to the goal. For example, instead of expecting a student with ASD to sit quietly in his chair for a 30-minute language arts les- son, the child may be allowed to hold a favorite “comfort toy” while sitting and is praised every 10 minutes for sitting and participating. Another student may be reinforced with praise and a favorite item for her attempts to speak. Instead of waiting for the child to say,
“I want a cookie,” the teacher reinforces the child for saying “cook,” an approximation of the word cookie. Common strategies and programs such as discrete trial training, PECS, pivotal response treatment, positive behavior intervention and support, among many oth- ers, are based upon ABA principles (National Autism Center, 2009). Decades of research support the efficacy of ABA strategies.
One outgrowth of ABA is the field of positive behavior intervention and support (PBIS), which aims to analyze the function of a challenging behavior and create structures and supports that reduce the barriers for engaging in more appropriate behaviors. PBIS interventions are used in natural settings, are family-centered, avoid using punishment strategies, use a collaborative, assessment-based approach, and result in multifaceted support plans (Carr et al., 2002).
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
Positive behavior intervention and support (PBIS) A proactive framework used to establish a positive social environment and provide behavioral supports for all students to succeed socially, emotionally, and academically.
Apps for Autism
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
professionals to choose the most ap- propriate app for the right purpose for each person. Some apps and websites have been designed to address this issue. On the AppyAutism site, users select their operating system, type of device, category of app (e.g., com- munication, social, learning), and key- word, and the site lists the apps match- ing the user’s search criteria. Prices, screenshots, videos, and scholarly articles accompany some of the app listings. The site is available updated monthly and presented in English and Spanish.
The phenomenal success of tablets with the general public has spawned thousands of applications for individu- als with ASD, many of which are free or low in cost. Having strong visual skills, students with autism are moti- vated to participate in learning activi- ties presented on electronic devices. Some apps are designed for individu- als without disabilities (e.g., academic programs such as names of the U.S. presidents, math flash cards, spelling, graphic organizers), while other apps are designed specifically for individu- als with disabilities such as ASD (e.g.,
social skills, eye contact, visual timers, sign language). Apps that have the greatest impact on nonverbal stu- dents are those that can be used for augmentative and alternative com- munication (AAC). Typical electronic AAC devices are expensive, but apps for tablets provide similar functional- ity at a lower price and with greater portability.
Because thousands of apps are avail- able online and many of them are ap- propriate for individuals with ASD, it can be overwhelming to parents and
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In the PBIS model, an individual receiving support is the most important decision maker in the behavior-change process. The individual’s preferences are used to make data-based decisions, and those people who this person values give their perspectives regarding developing interventions and support plans (Dunlap, Carr, Horner, Zarcone, & Schwartz, 2008).
Behavioral interventions may focus on challenging behavior such as self-stimulation, tantrums, or self-inflicted injury, and have substantially reduced or eliminated these prob- lem behaviors in many cases (Northey, 2009). Behavioral interventions have also been ef- fective in remediating deficiencies in fundamental social skills and language development, as well as in facilitating community integration for children with ASD (Bauminger et al., 2008). Furthermore, parental involvement in behavioral interventions has shown promis- ing results. Research has demonstrated that certain students with ASD can be effectively taught to employ self-management skills, which further enhance efficiency (Blacher & McIntyre, 2006; Rogers & Ozonoff, 2006). Some evidence indicates adapted group therapy is effective in reducing anxiety symptoms for children with ASD (McConachie et al., 2014; Sung et al., 2011).
Visual Structure and Support Providing visual structure and support is another strategy to set up the environment in such a way that capitalizes on the student’s visual strengths. Teachers who establish visually structured classrooms post their class rules/ expectations in a prominent place along with consequences for maintaining or not maintain- ing those expectations (see Figure 11.3). They teach the expectations to the students, re- teach as necessary, and reinforce frequently. Also, these teachers have the daily schedule posted and refer to it often. Some students may need individualized schedules, either in writ- ing or accompanied with pictures (see Figure 11.4 and Figure 11.5). Schedules help students know what to predict for their school day, which decreases their anxiety. Effective teachers also prevent problems during transition times by providing structured verbal and visual cues to smooth these transitions (Bondy & Frost, 2008). To facilitate a predictable environment, teachers establish logical routines that are taught and reinforced throughout the year (e.g., what to do upon entering the classroom, where to put completed work, what to do if students finish work early, when students are allowed to leave their seats). They also establish areas in the class designated for certain activities or items (e.g., a quiet zone, a one-on-one in- structional area with teacher or paraeducator, specific locations to keep various instructional items). Labeling the areas in the room with written words, photographs, or pictures and re- ferring to these labels is one strategy to reinforce the concepts and to increase literacy skills. For some students, color-coding facilitates understanding. For example, Noah, who is cur- rently unable to understand the meaning of pictures and written words, has his items labeled in his favorite color—yellow. His desk is labeled with his name on a yellow card, as is his coat hook and his storage bin with his personal calming and reinforcement items.
Visual supports can also be provided via technological means. One common strategy is to use video modeling, where a student with ASD watches himself or another person perform a target behavior that has previously been videotaped. Any prompts or errors that were made during the video shoot are edited out, so the student can view an errorless execution of the skill. After viewing the video, the student then practices the skill. Video modeling is often used to teach language, self-help, and daily living skills (Bellini & Akullian, 2007; LeBlanc, 2010), but has also been used to teach academic skills (Burton, Anderson, Prater, & Dyches, 2013) and vocational skills (Kellems & Morningstar, 2012).
Social Skill Development Interventions that focus on enhancing positive social relationships are based upon developmental theory and can be delivered in a variety of set- tings. Examples include programs such as the Early Start Denver Model, Floortime therapy, Relationship Developmental Intervention, and responsive teaching. These treatments are considered to have “emerging” levels of evidence (National Autism Center, 2009), and con- tinued meta-analytic research may find greater evidence for the effectiveness of these treatments.
Programs that focus on the development of social skills target a primary core deficit of children with ASD. Social skills can be taught in a variety of ways in various settings:
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
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C H A P T E R 11 A U T I S M S P E C T R U M D I S O R D E R S282
Figure 11.3 Classroom Rules with Natural Consequences Depicted in Writing and Pictures for Greater Comprehension
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We make friends.
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We can hear and learn.
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We don’t understand.
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We listen.
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We have quiet mouths.
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Class Rules What If We Do?
What If We Don’t?
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special or general education classrooms, friendship groups, buddy or mentoring programs, and social skill groups. Examples of strategies with an established level of scientific support include joint attention intervention, peer training, pivotal response treatment, and story-based interventions (National Autism Center, 2009). Other common strategies to teach social skills are direct instruction, role playing, modeling, constructive feedback (Toth & King, 2008), peer networks (Kamps et al., 2014), social script training (Hundert, Rowe, & Harrison, 2014), and more recently, multimedia social skills programs (Radley, Ford, Battaglia, & McHugh, 2014).
Technology to teach social skills, emotion and face recognition, and language, academic, and other skills are gaining empirical support (Grynszpan, Weiss, Perez-Diaz, & Gal, 2014;
Figure 11.4 Portable Picture Schedule Made from Potato Chip Container
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Figure 11.5 Daily Picture Schedule with “To Do” and “Done” Velcro Strips
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C H A P T E R 11 A U T I S M S P E C T R U M D I S O R D E R S284
Wass & Porayska-Pomsta, 2014). Additional research on the effectiveness of such technology presents intriguing possibilities as hardware, software, and applications continue to mature.
Teaching social skills to students with ASD is critical because they are likely targets for bullying (Cappadocia, Weiss, & Pepler, 2012) and are teased more often their than nondisabled peers, particularly when they have higher cognitive functioning, less severe symptoms, and spend more time in inclusive educational settings (Nowell, Brewton, & Goin-Kochel, 2014; Zablotsky, Bradshaw, Anderson, & Law, 2014). When students with ASD have serious concerns about their school achievement, self-esteem, stress and cop- ing, difficulties learning, and being bullied, then their quality of life is decreased (Lee, Harrington, Louie, & Newschaffer, 2008).
Functional Skills Instruction Because functional skills vary among individuals with ASD, instruction must be individualized. Some will receive instruction in communica- tion, social, self-help, and self-protection skills (Koegel & Koegel, 2006; Legoff & Sherman, 2006). For others, functional skills instruction will focus on academic subjects with skills that can be used in everyday life, as well as subjects not always included in general educa- tion curricula, such as sex education; other topics may be those of special concern to the children’s parents (Dale, Jahoda, & Knott, 2006; Harrington, Patrick, & Edwards, 2006; U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
Providing Positive and Creative Educational Services Creative, inno- vative, and positive teachers are particularly important in providing effective education for students with ASD (e.g., Willis, 2009). As noted earlier, these children present some unique challenges for instruction. Some seemingly insignificant actions by teachers can create great difficulties for students who have ASD—difficulties that can easily be avoided if teachers receive training and support for implementation. For example, many interpret speech liter- ally, so it is important to teach them the meanings of slang, idioms, and sarcasm. An indi- vidual with ASD might take such phrases literally and learn something very different from what was intended. The Snapshot by Taylor Crowe illustrates how teachers can be more effective with students with ASD.
To capitalize on the unique characteristics of students with ASD, teachers need to plan in advance. These four steps offer structure to follow: (1) List the student’s strengths, interests, and talents; (2) identify whether the student’s specific area of need is behavioral, academic, social, or emotional; (3) consider and select evidence-based strategies to teach the student; and (4) pair the strategy with a strength, interest, or talent (Lanou, Hough, & Powell, 2012). For example, Kaleb has a fascination with Captain America. He has a col- lection of Captain America comics and has memorized facts from the movies. However, he does not initiate conversation with his classmates, so his teacher decided to use direct instruction and role playing to teach Kaleb how to initiate a conversation. She then chose the power card strategy (Gagnon, 2001) to help Kaleb perform the skill more frequently with peers. Using his special interest in Captain America, she created a story and a power
Assessing and Treating ASD Many different interventions are aimed at teaching those on the autism spec- trum. After reviewing evidence-based practices, one has to experiment with individual interventions to determine particular treatment(s) that will facili- tate the most growth for the person. Autism Internet Modules are available
and may be reviewed to learn how to accurately assess students with ASD, and how to teach children with ASD at home, school, the workplace, and in the community. Many instructional strategies are described in text and video, shown in photographs, and demonstrated with case studies (see
the Autism Internet Modules website). This set of modules includes a large number of particular applications that may be modified to fit a child’s or adult’s needs for social interaction with others, academic instruction, or skill acquisition to build or offset problems or promote growth.
LEARNING THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA
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By Taylor Crowe My name is Taylor Crowe, and I have autism. As I write this, I am 30 years old. I am a graduate of the California Institute of the Arts, where I studied character animation. Like many stu- dents with special needs in the United States, I attended public school until just before my 21st birthday.
After undergoing extreme behav- ioral changes and losing almost all of my language skills at age 3, I was diagnosed with severe autism one year later. From those earliest days, my parents worked to surround me with other children who knew me, and who, as we grew older, accepted me and understood that my autism shouldn’t be a barrier to our friend- ships. In a very real sense, those neurotypical kids taught me how to be a kid, and were some of the best
“teachers” I ever had. I’ve come to learn that a wonderful side effect of these relationships was that teasing and bullying were never a serious problem for me because my friends protected me from those things. Un- like many kids with special needs, my memories of school and childhood are very pleasant.
My parents arranged for a speech therapist to give me language therapy beginning at age 4½. I worked with her for 15 years, slowly building lan- guage skills and learning to use lan- guage. My mom and dad say that as my ability to communicate started to develop, my “meltdowns” decreased, probably because I was able to com- municate what I was thinking and wasn’t as frustrated as I was when I couldn’t speak.
After two years of kindergar- ten to build my social skills, I was
“mainstreamed” in first grade, but that didn’t work very well because I
couldn’t keep up with my classmates. I couldn’t communicate very well and I was easily overwhelmed, both verbally and socially. I was placed in a special needs classroom in the second grade, attending the “regular ed” classroom only for art and music class. During these years, my teach- ers worked to facilitate my friend- ships with the other kids in school, so I never felt isolated.
I’ve learned that early on in school, a lot of focus was placed on survival language skills and community- based education. This created lots of opportunities to meet other people and created a lot of “real-world” so- cial challenges for me. It also helped a lot of people in our community get to know me and understand more about autism.
Something I think all teachers should know is that most people with autism are visual learners: In my case, seeing something and learning from it visually meant a lot more to me than hearing something and trying to learn. Language was very confus- ing to me. It often still is.
Idioms and figures of speech were very hard for me to figure out. I spent years in language therapy slowly learning about these very difficult parts of language. If you believe ex- actly what you hear, what does “It’s raining cats and dogs” mean? What
about “Keep your eye on the ball,” “Ants in your pants,” or “Bite the hand that feeds you”? If you interpret ev- erything literally, things like this can be very confusing or upsetting.
All teachers should be very care- ful not to tease or exaggerate when working with individuals who have autism. I once had a teacher who told me I couldn’t go home until I finished a worksheet and that if I didn’t finish it, I’d just have to spend the night in school. I believed her and thought she wanted to kidnap me, so I was abso- lutely terrified! I remained scared of her for years.
My best teachers were the ones who treated me as if I was their own child and went out of their way to help me. My seventh-grade mainstream English teacher discovered that I was really good at spelling. Every week, when it was time to work on spell- ing in her class, she’d have me come down from the special needs class- room to take part in a spelling exer- cise. She said I was as good or better than anyone else in the class in spell- ing, and she wanted all the other kids to see what I was capable of. She did this on her own, because she wanted to; no one told her to do it.
Early in my school years, teachers discovered my interests in art. They encouraged those interests, not just to help me become a better artist, but also to create social situations for me in an environment in which I was comfortable. Those opportunities en- hanced my social skills and helped me get to where I am today.
Having good teachers and friends who cared about me has had a huge impact on my life. Those relationships gave me levels of freedom that no one believed I was capable of when I was a preschooler.
SNAPSHOT My Thoughts about the Education of High-Functioning Individuals with Autism
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C H A P T E R 11 A U T I S M S P E C T R U M D I S O R D E R S286
card with Captain America, encouraging Kaleb to talk to his friends. See Figure 11.6 for an example of the story and a power card.
Parental participation in preparing children with ASD for school and other aspects of life is critical (Ashbaker, Dyches, Prater, & Sileo, 2012; Dyches, Carter, & Prater, 2011). Such preparation can include objectives like instilling a positive attitude in the child, helping him or her with scheduling, and teaching him or her how to find the way around in school. Also helpful is identifying a “safe” place and a “safe” person to seek out should the child become confused or encounter a particularly upsetting event. Other issues and strategies related to families are found in Chapter 6.
11-6e Psychological and Medical Interventions As mentioned earlier, multidisciplinary collaboration for individuals with ASD may include psychological and medical professionals, often from the very early stages of the child’s life. Their support will most often continue in various forms throughout the individual’s lifespan, depending on needs and specific contextual circumstances.
Psychological interventions in schools often consist of services from a school psycholo- gist, behavior support team, or other psychological service providers. Students may receive one-on-one instruction and support, engage in small therapeutic groups, or receive services by special or general education teachers in consultation with the school psychologist.
Various medical treatments have been used for individuals with ASD, primarily to alleviate or eliminate symptoms rather than to “cure” the autism. Research indicates at least 50 percent of individuals with ASD receive psychotropic medications during their lives (Mohiuddin & Ghaziuddin, 2013). Parents should make informed decisions when they are investigating the possible pros and cons of medications. Some concerns include financial burden, side effects, and the possibility that the medicine will not work. Parents should also be informed that medication is not likely to solve problems related to the child not following directions, learning slowly, not talking, and having poor social skills. Some benefits include the possibility of the child having reduced symptoms, functioning better, sleeping better, and fitting in better with peers (Autism Speaks, 2011).
Specific medications have been used in the past with individuals with ASD to treat certain symptoms. For example, stimulant medications such as Ritalin and Adderall have been used to treat hyperactivity, short attention span, and impulsive behavior. Antianxi- ety medications such as Prozac, Luvox, and Zoloft have been used to treat depression, anxiety, and repetitive thoughts and behaviors. Second-generation/atypical antipsychot- ics such as Risperdal and Zyprexa have been used to treat irritability, aggression, and
Standard 7 Collaboration
Captain America is good at talking to friends. When Captain America wants to be friendly, he finds a person to talk to, says “Hey,” and the person’s name, and then asks them a question. He waits for them to answer the question before saying some- thing else. When Captain America does this, he makes a new friend, and they have fun together. Captain America likes talk- ing to his friends!
Captain America wants you to talk to your friends! He knows that when you talk to your friends, you will have a lot of fun. It will make you happy and it will make others happy when you talk to your friends.
Captain America wants you to remember these four steps when you are making friends:
1. Find a person to talk to.
2. Say “Hey” and the person’s name.
3. Ask the person a question.
4. Wait for the person to answer before asking another question.
Figure 11.6 Captain America Talks to Friends
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COMMUNITY SUPPORT FOR LIFELONG INCLUSION
Early Childhood Years Tips for Families
● Learn the signs of ASD. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s “Learn the Signs. Act Early” campaign helps parents to spot red flags in their children and to get early treatment.
● Look for and celebrate your child’s milestones, and identify delays as early as possible. The CDC’s Birth to 5: Watch Me Thrive! campaign helps parents with developmental and behavioral screening.
● Watch videos available on the Autism Speaks website to help detect red flags or diagnostic features children may exhibit.
● Contact your local Early Intervention Agency (for children younger than 3) or your Early Childhood Special Educa- tion program (for children ages 3 to 5) for an evaluation.
● Complete a developmental checklist, such as the Communication and Sym- bolic Behavior Scales Developmental Profile Infant/Toddler Checklist avail- able free from the Florida State Univer- sity’s FIRST WORDS Project, and discuss it with your child’s pediatrician.
● Complete the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT) on the Autism Speaks website if your child is between 16 and 30 months old,
and go over the results with your pediatrician.
● Obtain a 100 Day Kit from Autism Speaks. The kit includes basic infor- mation about autism and dealing with the news of a diagnosis and can be accessed free on the Autism Speaks website.
● Create a filing system for compiling important information and docu- ments (e.g., personal documentation, developmental milestones, diagnostic history, education history, social skill development).
● Be an active partner in the treatment of your child. Collaborate proactively on the multidisciplinary team for your child, facilitating communication and coordinating interventions.
● Involve all family members in learn- ing about your child’s strengths, interests, and talents as well as her weaknesses.
● Protect your own health by obtaining respite care when you need a rest or a break. You may need to devise a family schedule that allows adequate time for ongoing sleep and respite. Plan ahead for respite; otherwise, when you need it most, you may be too exhausted to find it.
● Help prepare your child for school by instilling a positive attitude about
it; help him or her with the idea of a school schedule and how to find a “safe” place and a “safe” person at school.
Tips for Preschool Personnel
● Depending on a child’s level of func- tioning, you may have to use physi- cal cues or clear visual modeling to encourage her to do something; children with autism may not respond naturally to social cues.
● Establish, teach, and reinforce class expectations/consequences and nat- ural routines throughout the school day. Use pictures or photographs to facilitate understanding.
● Pair physical cues with verbal cues and systematically fade cues as the child becomes more independent.
● Limit instruction to one item at a time; focus on what is concrete rather than abstract.
● Avoid verbal overload by using short, direct sentences.
● Encourage the development of pro- grams where other children model good behavior and interact positively with children with ASD.
● Initiate and maintain communication with the child’s parents to enhance the information flow and to pro- mote consistent collaboration across environments.
sleep problems. Certain medications such as Tegretol and Depakote have been used to treat seizures and mood problems (Mohiuddin & Ghaziuddin, 2013). Autism Speaks offers a simple toolkit to aid parents in making informed decisions about medications (Autism Speaks, 2011).
Generally, medications have shown some promise in the treatment of ASD. There ap- pears to be potential for improvement, but such treatment should be used thoughtfully in conjunction with a multicomponent, comprehensive treatment plan. Parents can receive research-based medical care from the Autism Treatment Network, where hospitals, physi- cians, researchers, and families work together to provide the most effective medical ap- proach to individuals with ASD.
The tips found in this chapter’s Community Support for Lifelong Inclusion illustrate the need for individualizing the varied and complicated treatment packages for enhancing the quality of life for those with ASD.
Standard 7 Collaboration
People with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
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C H A P T E R 11 A U T I S M S P E C T R U M D I S O R D E R S288
● Promote ongoing collaborative rela- tionships between the preschool and related service providers who can pro- vide advice and assistance to children with ASD.
● Promote the appropriate collaborative involvement of support staff through workshops that provide information and awareness.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Be supportive of the parents and sib- lings of a child with ASD. They may be under high levels of stress and may need moral support.
● Be positive with the parents. They may receive information that places blame on them, which should not be magni- fied by their friends.
● Offer parents respite care to give them a short but important time away to do things that other families take for granted, such as going to the store or going on a date.
Elementary Years Tips for Families
● If your child has recently been diag- nosed, contact your local district to obtain an educational evaluation, clas- sification, and service through an IEP or a 504 (accommodation) plan.
● Consistently follow through with the basic principles of your child’s treat- ment program at home. This may mean taking more workshops or training on various topics to effectively collabo- rate as part of the intervention team.
● Learn to use applications of positive behavior support in your home, per- haps by enrolling in a parent training class.
● When working with your child, con- centrate on one behavior at a time as the target for change; emphasize increasing positive, appropriate be- haviors rather than focusing solely on decreasing or eliminating inappropri- ate behavior.
● Be active in community efforts for chil- dren with ASD; join local or national parent groups to provide support for and gain support from others.
● Provide siblings with information and opportunities to discuss the issues they are concerned about. Provide them with appropriate levels of sup- port and attention, particularly if they feel neglected, embarrassed, or jealous of the sibling with ASD. See Chapter 6 for resources for siblings.
● Take an online introductory course such as the Autism 101 course spon- sored by the Autism Society of Amer- ica or similar online courses provided by the Geneva Centre for Autism or Yale.
● Learn about the law and your rights in your child’s education. If your child is being served by a publicly funded or- ganization, they will give you a docu- ment detailing your “Parents’ Rights.” This may be a lengthy document ac- companied by a brief summary. You may also access information about ed- ucation law at sites such as Wrightslaw.
● It may be necessary to take safety pre- cautions in the home (e.g., installing locks on all doors and windows).
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● Help with collaborative organizational strategies, assisting students regard- ing matters that are difficult for them (e.g., remembering where to turn in homework).
● Use concrete examples to help stu- dents with ASD understand abstract concepts.
● Communicate with specific directions or questions, not vague or open- ended statements.
● If a student becomes agitated or upset, help him identify his emotions by us- ing a visual scale, similar to a pain scale found in doctor’s offices. Depending on the student’s emotional level, he may need to change activities or go to a place in the room that is “safe” for a period of time.
● Together with the student, create a self-monitoring chart to track appro- priate behavior. This can serve as a “home note” to celebrate the child’s daily successes.
● Collaborate with parents and other school personnel to determine class- room expectations, consequences, and schedules. Explicitly teach stu- dents so they understand what is ex- pected of them. Accompany the writ- ten expectations and schedules with pictures to enhance comprehension.
● Begin preparing students with ASD for a more variable environment by teaching adaption to changes in routine. Involve the children in planning for changes, mapping out what they might be.
Tips for School Personnel
● Promote an environment through- out the school where children model appropriate behavior and receive reinforcement for it. Proactively col- laborate with all members of the team, including parents.
● Develop peer assistance programs, where older students can help tutor and model appropriate behavior for children with ASD.
● Encourage the development of strong, ongoing collaborative school–parent relationships and support groups work- ing together to meet children’s needs.
● Find a reliable way to communicate with parents. Some students with ASD may not be able to take messages home with them, as the notes may get lost.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● When possible, ignore trivial disrup- tions or misbehaviors; focus on posi- tive behaviors.
● Don’t take misbehaviors personally; the child is not trying to make your life difficult or to manipulate you.
● Avoid sarcasm and idiomatic expres- sions, such as “beating around the bush.” Children with ASD may not understand and may interpret what you say literally.
Secondary and Transition Years Tips for Families
● Be alert to developmental and behav- ioral changes as the individual grows older, such as the onset of a seizure disorder or difficulties dealing with puberty.
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Looking Toward a Bright Future Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have received substantial attention in the popular press during the past decade. A brighter picture is emerging due to this media attention. As recent as 40 years ago, the picture of autism was bleak—most people with autism were denied a free and appropriate public education, those with severe behavioral challenges were institution- alized, most had intellectual disabilities, and few lived enviable lives. However, today, the diagnosis of an autism spectrum disorder can bring unexpected joys and success in many life pursuits. As we move forward, we can take several points from this chapter that both guide us and present a bright future for those with autism spectrum disorders.
● Continue as a proactive collaborative partner in your child’s educational and treatment program, planning for the transition to adulthood.
● Begin acquainting yourself with the adult services that will be available when your child leaves school. Together with your child, plan for adult living in environments and with activi- ties that he or she prefers.
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● Gradually increase the level of abstrac- tion in teaching, remaining aware of the individual challenges that young adults with ASD face.
● Continue preparing students for an increasingly variable environment through specific instruction and peer modeling.
● Focus increasingly on matters of vital importance to students as they mature (e.g., social awareness and interper- sonal issues between the sexes).
● Teach students with an eye toward post-school community participa- tion, including matters such as navi- gating the community, recreational and social activities, and employ- ment. Teach students about inter- acting with police in the community, because they require responses dif- ferent from those appropriate for other strangers.
Tips for School Personnel
● Prepare in advance for students’ tran- sition plan. Check state guidelines for when these plans must be in place.
● See the National Secondary Transition Technical Assistance Center (NSTTAC)
website for information regarding transition assessments, best prac- tices, toolkits, products, and other resources.
● Promote involvement in social activi- ties and clubs that enhance interper- sonal interaction.
● Encourage the development of func- tional academic programs that are combined with transition planning.
● Consider and encourage participation in gifted or other programs that facili- tate unique interests and skills.
● Promote a continuing collaborative re- lationship with parents, other school staff, and agency personnel who might be involved in students’ overall treatment program (e.g., health care providers, social service agencies, vo- cational rehabilitation).
● Work with other agencies that may encounter children in the community (e.g., law enforcement, medical ser- vices). Provide workshops, if possible, to inform officers regarding behavioral characteristics of people with autism.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Encourage a positive understanding of people with ASD among other neigh- bors and friends who may be in con- tact with young adults; help them to provide environmentally appropriate interactions.
● Assist families in providing opportuni- ties for socialization with nondisabled peers in leisure, school, and work settings.
● Support the parents as they consider the issues of adulthood for their child with ASD. Topics such as guardianship
and community living may be difficult for parents to discuss.
The Adult Years Tips for Families
● Continue to be alert for behavioral or developmental changes that may oc- cur as an individual matures. Contin- ued biological maturation may require medication adjustments as well as ad- justments in behavioral intervention programming.
● Seek opportunities for continuing education that are appropriate and preferred.
● Continue to seek out adult services that are available to individuals with disabilities.
● Seek legal advice regarding plans for the future when you are no longer able to care for a family member with an ASD. Plan for financial arrangements and other needs that are appropriate, such as naming an advocate. Backup plans should be made; do not always count on the person’s siblings. Con- sider guardianship by other people or agencies.
Tips for Therapists or Other Professionals
● Remain cognizant of the maturity level of individuals with whom you are working. Despite the presence of an ASD, some individuals have mature interests and inclinations. Do not treat them as children.
● Proactively promote collaboration between appropriate adult service agencies to provide the most compre- hensive services.
L O O K I N G T O WA R D A B R I G H T F U T U R E
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C H A P T E R 11 A U T I S M S P E C T R U M D I S O R D E R S290
11-1 Describe how the lives of people with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have changed since the advent of IDEA.
● Since 1975, individuals on the autism spectrum have the right to a free and appropriate public education.
● Increased media attention has encouraged greater awareness, acceptance, and inclusion.
11-2 Explain the various definitions and classifica- tion of ASD.
● The definition of autism has changed many times over the years and is currently viewed as a spectrum disorder with varying lev- els of functioning.
● Individuals with ASD have two primary impairments that are pervasive and significantly affect their functioning:
● Social communication and social interaction ● Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities
● Medical professionals diagnose an individual with ASD, but a diagnosis is not necessary to receive an educational classifica- tion of autism.
11-3 Describe the characteristics and prevalence of children and youth with ASD.
● Social communication and interactions skills are impaired along a broad continuum.
● Restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviors, interests, or activi- ties limit functional living, and have great variation.
● Other comorbid conditions often exist, such as developmental, mental health, and medical conditions.
● Prevalence rates of ASD range from approximately 22 to 70 cases per 10,000, or 1 out of every 143 children.
● The most recent report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2014) has gained much media attention, citing the prevalence of ASD as 1 of every 68 children.
● Variation in prevalence rates is due to numerous factors such as changes in diagnostic criteria and earlier identification. How- ever, there may be a true increase.
11-4 List the causes and risk factors associated with ASD.
● It is well accepted that there is no one specific cause of ASD. ● ASD is likely caused by genetic, infectious, neurologic, meta- bolic, and immunologic factors, with the bulk of research sup- porting genetic etiologies.
11-5 Describe the assessment procedures used to identify ASD in children and youth.
● Multidisciplinary teams of professionals from the fields of medicine, psychology, education, speech–language pathology, occupational therapy, physical therapy, social work, and coun- seling collaborate to identify, diagnose, and classify students with ASD.
● Parents are often the first to notice autistic characteristics in their children.
11-6 Describe the different interventions for chil- dren and youth with ASD from early childhood through adulthood.
● Early intervention and early childhood special education are critical for achieving positive outcomes in young children with ASD and are provided in many developmentally appropriate settings.
● Elementary students with ASD may qualify for special education services or accommodations through a 504 plan, and some may qualify for gifted and talented programs.
● Evidence-based services are provided to young adults with ASD as they prepare to transition to post-high school environments, such as college, vocational training, work, and other appropri- ate settings.
● Evidence-based practices should include instruction in com- munication skills, behavioral strategies, visual structure and support, social skills development, functional skills instruction, positive and creative educational services, and for some, psy- chological or medical services.
Chapter Review
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Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Standards to Accompany Chapter 11
If you are thinking about a career in special education, you should know that many states use national standards developed by the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) to assess a teacher candidate’s knowledge and skills for working with students with disabilities. See a complete listing of the seven CEC Content Standards on the inside cover of this text.
1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
2 Learning Environments 4 Assessment 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies 7 Collaboration
Mastery Activities and Assignments To master the content within this chapter, complete the following activities and assignments: 1. Complete a written test of the chapter’s content. If your
instructor requires a written test of your content knowl- edge for this chapter, keep a copy for your portfolio.
2. Review the Case Study on Embracing Diversity, “Iden- tifying Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Children
with ASD,” and respond in writing to the Application Questions. Keep a copy of the Case Study and your written response for your portfolio.
3. Participate in a community service learning activity. Community service is a valuable way to enhance your learning experience. Develop a reflective journal of the service learning experience for your portfolio.
C H A P T E R R E V I E W
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CHAPTER 12
Severe and Multiple Disabilities
Learning Objectives After you complete this chapter, you will be able to:
12-1 Describe how the lives of people with severe and multiple disabilities have changed since the advent of IDEA.
12-2 Explain the various definitions and classifications of severe and multiple disabilities.
12-3 Describe the characteristics and prevalence of children and youth with severe and multiple disabilities.
12-4 List the causes and risk factors associated with severe and multiple disabilities.
12-5 Describe the assessment procedures used to identify severe and multiple disabilities in children and youth.
12-6 Describe the different interventions for children and youth with severe and multiple disabilities from early childhood through adulthood.
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SNAPSHOT Sarina
Sarina never had the opportunity to go to preschool and didn’t begin her formal education in the public schools until the age of 6. She is now 15 years old and goes to Eastmont Junior High, her neighborhood school. Sarina does not verbally speak, walk, or hear, and she has limited sight. Professionals have used several labels to describe her, including severely disabled, se- verely multiply disabled, deaf–blind, and profoundly intellectually disabled. Her teenage classmates at Eastmont call her Sarina.
Throughout the day, Sarina has a support team of administrators, teachers, paraprofessionals, and peers
who work together to meet her in- structional, physical, and medical needs. And she has many, many needs. Sarina requires some level of support in nearly everything she does, ranging from eating and tak- ing care of personal hygiene to com- municating with others. In the last few years, she has learned to express herself through the use of assistive technology. Sarina has a personal communication board with picture symbols that keeps her in constant contact with teachers, friends, and family. Through the use of a power wheelchair and her ability to use various switches, Sarina is able to
maneuver her way through just about any obstacle in her environment. She is also learning to feed herself independently.
Sarina lives at home with her fam- ily, including three older brothers. Her parents, siblings, and grandparents are very supportive, always looking for ways to help facilitate Sarina’s participation in school, family, and community activities. What she loves to do most is go shopping with her mom at the local mall, eat with friends at a fast-food restaurant, relax on the lawn in the neighborhood park, and play miniature golf at Mulligan’s Pitch and Putt.
12-1 A Changing Era in the Lives of People with Multiple Disabilities Sarina, in the opening Snapshot, is a person with severe and multiple disabilities. In one way or another, she will require services and support in nearly every facet of her life. Some people with multiple disabilities have significant intellectual, learning, and behavioral differences; others have physical disabilities with vision and hearing loss. The layered effect of disabilities is often referred to as multiple disabilities. People who have multiple disabilities are often said to have a severe disability. Sarina has multiple needs, one of which is communication. Yet, although she is unable to communicate verbally, she is able to express herself through the use of an assistive communication device, a language board. Thus, in many circumstances, a disability may be described as severe, but through today’s technology and our understanding of how to adapt the environment, individuals with severe disabilities are able to lead constructive, happy, and productive lives in school, family, and community. Prior to 1975, when IDEA went into effect, children with multiple disabilities were often excluded from school due to the severity of their disabilities. However, educators now recognize that each individual has potential and will benefit from specialized services offered by a team of professionals.
This chapter is about people with severe and multiple disabilities. These individuals are often described and labeled by the severity of their disability. Yet, they bring unique personalities, characteristics, and life experiences to this world. We begin our discussion of the various definitions and characteristics associated with multiple disabilities. Sarina from our opening Snapshot is a 15-year-old teenager. Instead of initially describing Sarina as a teenager with green eyes and a beautiful smile who loves to listen to Kings of Leon with her brothers and attends Eastmont High School, she is too often described solely by her deficits: multiply disabled with a profound intellectual disability, blindness, or physical impairments. In this chapter, regardless of whether we are talking about definitions, char- acteristics, or causation, the language will be “people first.” As such, Sarina is a teenager who also happens to have multiple disabilities.
Severe and multiple disabilities Disabilities that involve significant physical, sensory, intellectual, and/ or social-interpersonal perfor- mance deficits.
12 -1 A C H A N G I N G E R A I N T H E L I V E S O F P E O P L E W I T H M U LT I P L E D I S A B I L I T I E S
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C H A P T E R 12 S E V E R E A N D M U LT I P L E D I S A B I L I T I E S294
12-2 Definitions of People with Severe and Multiple Disabilities The needs of people with severe and multiple disabilities cannot be met by one professional. The nature of their disabilities extends equally into the fields of education, medicine, psy- chology, and social services. Because these individuals present such diverse characteristics and require the attention of several professionals, it is not surprising that numerous defini- tions have been used to describe them.
Throughout history, terminology associated with severe disabilities has communicated a sense of hopelessness and despair. The condition was described as “extremely debili- tating,” “inflexibly incapacitating,” or “uncompromisingly crippling.” In the 1970s, Abt Associates (1974) described individuals with severe disabilities as unable “to attend to even the most pronounced social stimuli, including failure to respond to invitations from peers or adults, or loss of contact with reality” (p. v). The definition went on to use terms such as self-mutilation (e.g., head banging, body scratching, and hair pulling), ritualistic behaviors (e.g., rocking and pacing), and self-stimulation (e.g., masturbation, stroking, and patting). The Abt definition focused almost exclusively on the individual’s deficits and negative behavioral characteristics.
Justen (1976) proposed a definition that moved away from negative terminology to de- scriptions of an individual’s developmental characteristics. “The ‘severely disabled’ refers to those individuals…who are functioning at a general development level of half or less than the level which would be expected on the basis of chronological age and who manifest learning and/or behavior problems of such magnitude and significance that they require extensive structure in learning situations” (p. 5).
Whereas Justen emphasized a discrepancy between normal and atypical development, Sailor and Haring (1977) proposed a definition that was oriented to the educational needs of each individual:
A child should be assigned to a program for the severely/multiply disabled according to whether the primary service needs of the child are basic or academic.… If the diagnosis and assessment process determines that a child with multiple disabilities needs academic instruction, the child should not be referred to the severely disabled program. If the child’s service need is basic skill development, the referral to the severely/multiply disabled pro- gram is appropriate. (p. 68)
In the 1990s, Snell (1991) further elaborated on the importance of defining severe dis- abilities on the basis of educational need, suggesting that the emphasis be on supporting individuals in inclusive classroom settings. TASH (a human rights and advocacy organiza- tion), agreeing in principle with Snell, proposed a definition that focused on inclusion in all natural settings: family, community, and school (Meyer, Peck, & Brown, 1991).
TASH describes the individuals it serves as follows:
People with significant disabilities and support needs who are most at risk for being ex- cluded from society; perceived by traditional service systems as most challenging; most likely to have their rights abridged; most likely to be at risk for living, working, playing, and learning in segregated environments; least likely to have the tools and opportunities necessary to advocate on their behalf; and are most likely to need ongoing, individualized supports to participate in inclusive communities and enjoy a quality of life similar to that available to all people. (TASH, 2014a)
TASH focuses on the relationship of the individual within the environment (adaptive fit), the need to include people of all ages, and “ongoing support” in life activities. The adaptive fit between the person and the environment is a two-way proposition. First, it is impor- tant to determine the capability of the individual to cope with the requirements of family, school, and community environments. Second, the extent to which these various environ- ments recognize and accommodate the need of the person with severe disabilities is vital. The adaptive fit of the individual within the environment is a dynamic process requiring
Standard 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
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12 -2 D E F I N I T I O N S O F P E O P L E W I T H S E V E R E A N D M U LT I P L E D I S A B I L I T I E S 295
continuous adjustment that fosters a mutually supportive coexistence. The TASH definition suggests that an adaptive fit can be created only when there is ongoing support (formal and/or natural) for each person as he or she moves through various life activities, includ- ing social interactions, taking care of personal needs, and making choices about lifestyle, working, and moving from place to place.
12-2a The IDEA Definitions of Multiple Disabilities As defined in IDEA federal regulations, multiple disabilities means:
concomitant impairments (such as intellectual disabilities–blindness, intellectual disabilities– orthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments. The term does not include deaf–blindness. (34 C.F.R. 300.8[c][7], August 14, 2006)
This definition includes multiple conditions that can occur in any of several combina- tions. One such combination is described by the term dual diagnosis and involves people who have serious emotional disturbance or who present challenging behaviors in con- junction with severe intellectual disabilities. Estimates of the percentage of people with intellectual disabilities who also have serious challenging behaviors vary, ranging from 5 percent to 15 percent of those living in the community to a much higher percentage for people living in institutions (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Hill, 2011). Why do people with intellectual disabilities and other developmental disabilities often have higher rates of challenging behaviors? These individuals are more likely to live in situations that are re- strictive, are prejudicial, limit their independence, and result in victimization. Additionally, when a person has limited means of communication, challenging behaviors can develop as a primary way to express wants and frustrations (Oliver, Petty, Ruddick, & Bacarese- Hamilton, 2012). For more insight into the life of a person with multiple disabilities, see the nearby Reflect on This, “Mat’s Story.”
12-2b Deaf–Blindness For some with multiple disabilities, intellectual disabilities may not be a primary symptom. One such condition is deaf–blindness. The concomitant vision and hearing difficulties (some- times referred to as dual sensory impairments) exhibited by people with deaf–blindness result in severe communication deficits as well as in developmental and educational difficulties that require extensive support across several professional disciplines. IDEA defines deaf–blindness in federal regulation as:
concomitant hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such se- vere communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness. (34 C.F.R. 300.8[c][2], August 14, 2006)
Although deaf–blindness sounds like a very specific set of characteristics, people who have this combination of sensory limitations span a continuum of ability. The impact of both vision and hearing loss on the educational needs of a student will vary depending on the individual student. One person with deaf–blindness may have such severe intellectual disabilities that both vision and hearing are also affected while another may have aver- age intelligence and lost their hearing and sight after they acquired language. Intellectual functioning for people with deaf–blindness may range from normal or gifted to severe intellectual disabilities. All people with deaf–blindness experience challenges in learning to communicate, access information, and comfortably move through their environment. These individuals may also have physical and behavioral disabilities. However, the specific needs of each person will vary enormously, depending on age, age at onset, and type of deaf–blindness.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Dual sensory impairments A condition, characterized by both vision and hearing sensory impair- ments (deaf–blindness), which can result in severe communication problems.
Deaf–blindness A disorder involving simultaneous vision and hearing impairments.
Dual diagnosis Identification of both serious emotional problems and intellec- tual disabilities in the same individual.
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12-3 Characteristics and Prevalence Although there are many possible combinations of disabilities and characteristics that can occur together, few people are identified as having severe and multiple disabilities.
Mat’s Story: Joining the Community
Mat is a 23-year-old man with severe and multiple disabilities (including autism and intellectual disabilities). He lives in a home with one roommate and holds two jobs. One job involves cleaning at a local bar and restaurant for an hour each morning. The second job is delivering a weekly advertiser to 170 homes in his neighborhood. In addition to working in the community, Mat goes shopping, takes walks around a nearby lake, goes to the movies, at- tends concerts and special events, and eats at a fast-food restaurant where he uses a wallet-sized communica- tion picture board to order his meal, independently.
Mat hasn’t always been so integrated into his local community. In the past he engaged in a number of challeng- ing behaviors, including removing pictures from the wall, taking down drapes and ripping them, dismantling his bed, ripping his clothing, breaking windows, smearing his bowel move- ments on objects, urinating on his clothing, hurting others, stripping naked, and similar behaviors. For al- most one entire year, Mat refused to wear clothing and spent most of his time wrapped in a blanket. He would often cover his head with the blanket and lie on the couch for hours. He fre- quently stripped in community set- tings, on those few occasions when staff were able to coax him to go out. After this had continued for months, the assistance of a behavioral analyst was sought. An analysis of the function that the behaviors served revealed that Mat’s stripping and subsequent refusal to wear clothing were the result
of his attempt to exert control over his environment, primarily to escape or avoid undesirable events. For this rea- son, the behavior analyst suggested not focusing directly on the issue of wearing clothing but, rather, address- ing the development of a communica- tion system for Mat.
Mat was reported to know over 200 signs, but he was rarely observed to use the signs spontaneously. When he did sign, others in his environment were unable to interpret his signing. Consequently, the behavior analyst and a consultant in augmentative and alternative communi- cation suggested that a communication system using pictures or symbols be implemented to supplement his exist- ing system.
The support program that was de- veloped for Mat had two main com- ponents. The first was to enhance his communication and choice-making skills; the second was to provide op- portunities for him to participate in activities that were motivating and re- quired him to wear clothing. To address communication and choice-making skills, several photographs were taken of people Mat knew and had worked with, activities he liked or was required to engage in (e.g., watching YouTube videos, going to McDonald’s, shaving, taking a shower), and a variety of ob- jects (e.g., lotion, pop, cookies). Then, a minimum of four times each hour, Mat was presented with a choice. Mat would then pick one of the pictures, and staff would help him complete whatever activity he had chosen. Soon he had over 130 photographs in
his communication system. The pho- tographs were mounted on hooks in the hallway of the house where he lived, ensuring that he had easy ac- cess to them. Staff reported that over time, Mat began spontaneously using some of the pictures to request items. He would, for example, bring staff the photo of a Diet Pepsi to request a Diet Pepsi. Thus, the communication served to enhance his ability to make his wants and needs known, as well as to help him understand choices pre- sented to him.
While Mat’s communication system was being developed, staff was also trying to address indirectly his refusal to wear clothes by capitalizing on the fact that he seemed to genuinely like to go out into the community. Staff would period- ically encourage Mat to dress. On those occasions when he would dress, he was able to participate in a community ac- tivity that was reinforcing for him. The length of these outings was gradually increased.
Questions for Reflection 1. Why do you believe the two com- ponents of Mat’s community support program were so effective in helping him to participate more in community activities?
2. What ideas do you have for sup- porting Mat’s opportunities to “join the community”?
SOURCE: Hewitt, A., & O’Nell, S. (2009). I Am Who I Am. A Little Help from My Friends. Washington, DC: President’s Committee on Intellectual Disabilities. Adapted from Piche, L., Krage, P., & Wiczek, C. (1991). Joining the com- munity. IMPACT, 4(1), 3, 18. Retrieved May 5, 2009, from www.acf. hhs.gov/programs/pcpid/pcpid_help.html.
REFLECT ON THIS
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12 – 3 C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S A N D P R E VA L E N C E 297
12-3a Characteristics of Individuals with Severe and Multiple Disabilities The multitude of characteristics exhibited by people with multiple disabilities is mir- rored by the numerous definitions associated with these conditions. A close analysis of these definitions reveals a consistent focus on people whose life needs cannot be met without substantial support from others, including family, friends, and society. With this support, however, people with multiple disabilities have a much greater probability of escaping the stereotype that depicts them as totally dependent consumers of societal resources. People with multiple disabilities can become contributing members of families and communities.
Giangreco (2011) suggests that “inclusion-oriented people seek to establish an ethic that welcomes all children into their local schools and simultaneously pursues a range of in- dividually meaningful learning outcomes through effective education practices” (p. 4). For Sarina in the opening Snapshot, this would mean concentrating on educational outcomes that will decrease her dependence on others in her environment and create opportunities to enhance her participation at home, at school, and in the community. Instruction would be developed with these outcomes in mind, rather than on the basis of a set of general characteristics associated with the label severely disabled.
Intelligence and Academic Achievement Most people with multiple dis- abilities have intellectual disabilities as a primary condition. Thus, their learning and mem- ory capabilities are reduced. The greater the intellectual disabilities, the more difficulty the individual will have in learning, retaining, and applying information. People with multiple disabilities will likely require specialized and intensive instruction to acquire and use new skills across a number of settings.
Given the reduced intellectual capability of many people with multiple disabilities, academic learning is often a low instructional priority. The vast majority of students with multiple disabilities struggle to access content from basic academic programs in reading, writing, and mathematics. Instruction in functional academic skills that fa- cilitate access to the general curriculum is the most effective approach to academic learning. Basic academic subjects are taught in the context of daily living. For example, functional reading focuses on those words that facilitate a child’s access to the environ- ment (restroom, danger, exit, and the like). Functional math skill development involves developing strategies for telling time or the consumer’s use of money. A more in-depth discussion of teaching functional skills to students with severe disabilities appears later in this chapter.
Adaptive Skills The learning of adaptive skills is critical to success in natural set- tings. These skills involve both personal independence and social interaction. Personal independence skills range from the ability to take care of one’s basic needs—eating, dressing, and hygiene—to living on one’s own in the community (including getting and keeping a job, managing money, and finding ways to get around in the environment). Social interaction skills involve being able to communicate one’s needs and preferences, as well as listening and appropriately responding to others. People with multiple disabili- ties often do not have age-appropriate adaptive skills; they need ongoing services and supports to facilitate learning and application in this area. We do know that when given the opportunity to learn adaptive skills through participation in inclusive settings with peers without disabilities, children with multiple disabilities have a higher probability of maintaining and meaningfully applying this learning over time (Snell & Brown, 2011; Westling & Fox, 2009).
Speech and Language People with severe and multiple disabilities generally have significant deficits and delays in speech and language skills, ranging from articulation and fluency disorders to an absence of any expressive oral language (Westling & Fox, 2009). Speech and language deficits and delays are positively correlated with the severity of intel- lectual disabilities (Moore & Montgomery, 2008). As is true for adaptive skill learning,
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Adaptive skills Conceptual, social, and practical skills that facilitate an individual’s ability to function in community, family, and school settings.
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people with multiple disabilities will acquire and use appropriate speech and language if these skills are taught and applied in natural settings. Functional communication systems (such as signing, picture cards, communication boards, and gesturing) are also an integral part of instruction. Regardless of the communication system(s) used to teach speech and language skills, they must be applied across multiple settings. For example, if picture cards are used in the classroom, they must also be a part of the communication system used at home and in other environments.
Physical and Health People with multiple disabilities typically have significant phys- ical and health care needs. For instance, these individuals have a higher incidence of con- genital heart disease, epilepsy, respiratory problems, diabetes, and metabolic disorders. They also exhibit poor muscle tone and often have conditions such as spasticity, athetosis, and hypotonia. Such conditions require that professionals in the schools and other service agencies know how to administer medications, catheterization, gastronomy tube feeding, and respiratory ventilation (Rues, Graff, Ault, & Holvoet, 2006).
Vision and Hearing Although the prevalence of vision and hearing loss is not well documented among people with severe disabilities, sensory impairments do occur more fre- quently in people with severe disabilities than in the general population (Drew & Hardman, 2007). Some individuals, particularly those described as deaf–blind, have significant vision and hearing disorders that require services and supports beyond those for a person with blindness or deafness.
12-3b Prevalence of Multiple Disability People with multiple disabilities constitute a very small percentage of the general popula- tion. Even if we consider the multitude of conditions, prevalence is no more than 0.1 percent
to 1.0 percent. The U.S. Department of Education (2013) reported that more than 130,000 students between the ages of 6 and 21 were served in the public schools under the label multiple disabilities. These students account for about 2 percent of the over 7 million students considered eli- gible for services under IDEA. The Depart- ment of Education also reported that more than 1,600 students between the ages of 6 and 21 were labeled as deaf–blind. These students account for 0.0002 percent of students with disabilities served under IDEA. Overall, about 14,000 individu- als in the United States are identified as deaf–blind.
12-4 Causes and Risk Factors Associated with Multiple Disabilities Multiple disabilities result from multiple causes. For the vast majority of people with multiple disabilities, the differences are evident at birth. Multiple disabilities may be the result of genetic or metabolic disorders, including chromosomal abnormalities, and phenylketonuria (See Chapter 9 for more in-depth information on these disorders.) Most identifiable causes of multiple disabilities that include severe intellectual disabilities are genetic in origin (The ARC, 2014). Other causes include prenatal conditions: poor maternal health during preg- nancy, drug abuse, infectious diseases (e.g., HIV), radiation exposure, venereal disease, and advanced maternal age. Multiple disabilities can also result from incidents or conditions that occur later in life, such as accidents, poisoning, malnutrition, physical and emotional abuse or neglect, and disease.
Hypotonia Poor muscle tone.
Catheterization The process of introducing a hollow tube (catheter) into body cavities to drain fluid, such as intro- ducing a tube into an individual’s bladder to drain urine.
Gastronomy tube feeding The process of feeding a person through a rubber tube that is inserted into the stomach.
Respiratory ventilation Use of a mechanical aid (ventilator) to supply oxygen to an individual with respiratory problems.
Epilepsy A condition that produces brief disturbances in brain function, resulting in seizures of varying intensity.
Spasticity A condition that involves involun- tary contractions of various muscle groups.
Athetosis A condition characterized by constant, contorted twisting motions in the wrists and fingers.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Photo 12.1 Students with deaf–blindness require extensive support to meet their educational needs, particularly in the area of communication.
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12-5 Assessment Procedures Used to Identify Severe and Multiple Disabilities Children who have severe and multiple disabilities are often identified at a very young age due to the overarching nature of the disability. It is not unusual for a pediatrician to make a diagnosis soon after birth or within the first year as the infant misses developmental milestones. Once a concern has been identified, further information is typically gathered through formal assessments given by pediatricians, speech and language pathologists, physical therapists, and early intervention specialists. These assessments often include evaluation of fine and gross motor skills, reflexes, vision, hearing, and a complete health screening. Infants and toddlers who have severe and multiple disabilities start early inter- vention services as soon as a deficit or concern is identified.
12-6 Interventions for Children and Youth with Multiple Disabilities The axiom “the earlier, the better” is certainly applicable to educational assessments and supports for children with severe and multiple disabilities. Such services must begin at birth and continue throughout the lifespan. Traditionally, there has been a heavy reliance on standardized assessments, particularly IQ tests, in identifying people with severe and multiple disabilities, particularly when the primary condition is intellectual disabilities (see Chapter 9). Some professionals (Bishop, 2005; Brown & Snell, 2011) have suggested that standardized tests, particularly the IQ test, do not provide information useful in either diagnosing the disability or providing instruction to individuals with severe disabilities. Others (McDonnell, Hardman, & McDonnell, 2003) believe that standardized tests may be appropriate as one tool in a battery of multidisciplinary assessments to determine eligibility for special education services, but that they provide no meaningful information for making curriculum decisions such as what and how to teach.
Assessments that focus on valued skills to promote independence and quality of life in natural settings are referred to as functional, ecological, or authentic assessment (Horner, Albin, Todd, & Sprague, 2006; McDonnell, Hardman, & McDonnell, 2003). Authentic assessment refers to the systematic recording of developmental observa- tions over time, focused on behaviors and competencies of the person being assessed (Bagnato, Goins, Pretti-Frontczak, & Neisworth, 2014). These assessments focus on the match between the needs of the individual and the demands of the environment (adaptive fit). The purpose of the assessment is to determine what supports are neces- sary to achieve the intended outcomes of access and participation in natural settings. Skills are never taught in isolation from actual performance demands. Additionally, the individual does not “get ready” to participate in the community through a sequence of readiness stages as in the developmental model but, rather, learns and uses skills in the setting where the behavior is expected to occur. Bagnato et al. (2014) found authentic assessments to be superior to conventional assessments for the purpose of diagnosing early childhood disorders.
During the past decade, there has been increasing emphasis on holding schools more accountable for student learning and progress. States are setting educational standards and then assessing how students progress toward the intended goals. A major challenge for education is to demonstrate accountability for all students, including those with the most significant disabilities:
Regardless of one’s perspective on the wisdom and implications of this [accountability] movement, it promises to have a significant effect on curricular guidance and foci for stu- dents with [severe] disabilities.… A major question facing educators and parents is how can those concerned with the education of students with significant disabilities ensure a continued and focused emphasis on full membership and meaningful outcomes during this era? (Ford, Davern, & Schnorr, 2001, p. 215)
Standard 4 Assessment
Authentic assessment An alternative basis used to measure student progress. Assess- ment is based on student progress in meaningful learning activities.
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IDEA requires that schools must include students with disabilities in district-wide or statewide assessments of achievement or provide a statement of why that assess- ment is not appropriate for the child. The law also requires that individual modifica- tions in the administration of statewide or district-wide assessments be provided as appropriate for children to participate. Examples of student accommodations include large-print text, testing in a separate setting, and extended time. Ysseldyke, Olsen, and Thurlow (2012) estimate that about 85 percent of students with disabilities have mild or moderate disabilities and can take state or district assessments, either with or without accommodations. For many students with severe disabilities, these assess- ments are inappropriate; such students are excluded from taking them. Schools are still accountable, however, for the progress of these students. IDEA mandated that states conduct alternate assessments to ensure that all students are included in the state’s accountability system. Quenemoen and Thurlow (2012) identified five characteristics of good alternate assessments:
● There have been careful stakeholder and policy-maker development and definition of desired student outcomes for the population, reflecting the best understanding of research and practice.
● Assessment methods have been carefully developed, tested, and refined. ● Professionally accepted standards are used to score evidence (e.g., adequate train-
ing, dual-scoring third-party tiebreakers, reliability tests, and rechecks of scorer competence).
● An accepted standards-setting process has been used so that results can be included in reporting and accountability.
● The assessment process is continuously reviewed and improved.
Alternate assessment systems should include as key criteria the extent to which the system provides the supports and adaptations needed and trains students to use them.
Alternate assessments may involve either normative or absolute performance standards (Ysseldyke & Olsen, 2012). If a normative assessment is used, then a student’s performance is compared to that of peers (other students of comparable age or ability participating in the alternate assessment). If an absolute standard is used, then a student’s performance is compared against a set criterion, such as being able to cross the street when the “walk” sign is flashing 100 percent of the time without assistance.
12-6a The Early Childhood Years Effective early intervention services that start when a child is born are critical to the preven- tion and amelioration of social, medical, and educational problems that can occur through- out the life of an individual (Batshaw, Pellegrino, & Rozien, 2008; Berk, 2005). During the early childhood years, services and supports are concentrated on two age groups: infants and toddlers, and preschool-age children.
Services and Supports for Infants and Toddlers Effective programs for infants and toddlers with severe and multiple disabilities are both child- and family-centered. A child- centered approach focuses on identifying and meeting individual needs. Services begin with infant stimulation programs intended to elicit in newborns the sensory, cognitive, and physical responses that will connect them with their environment. As the child develops, health care, physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech and language services may become integral components of a child-centered program.
Alternate assessments Assessments mandated in IDEA for students who are unable to participate in required state- or district-wide assessments. It ensures that all students, regardless of the severity of their disabilities, are included in the state’s accountability system.
Photo 12.2 Effective programs for infants and toddlers with severe and multiple disabilities are both child- and family- centered. Therapists work closely with the infant and the family to promote early learning and development.
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Family-centered early intervention focuses on a holistic approach that involves the child as a member of the family unit. The needs, structure, and preferences of the family drive the delivery of services and supports. The overall purpose of family-centered intervention is to enable family members first to cope with the birth of a child with a severe disability and eventually to grow together and support one another. Family-centered approaches build on and increase family strengths, address the needs of every family member, and support mutually enjoyable family relationships. Supports for families may include parent-training programs, counseling, and respite care.
Services and Supports for Preschool-Age Children Preschool programs for young children with severe and multiple disabilities continue the emphasis on family involvement while extending the life space of the child to a school setting. McDonnell, Hardman, and McDonnell (2003) suggest four goals for preschool programs serving chil- dren with severe disabilities:
1. Maximize the child’s development in a variety of important developmental areas. These include social communication, motor skills, cognitive skills, pre-academic skills, self-care, play, and personal management.
2. Develop the child’s social interaction and classroom participation skills. Focus should be on teaching the child to follow adult directions while developing peer relationships, responding to classroom routines, and becoming self-directed (that is, completing classroom activities without constant adult supervision).
3. Increase community participation through support to family members and other care- givers. Work to identify alternative caregivers so that the family has a broader base of support and more flexibility to pursue other interests. Help the family to identify activities within the neighborhood that their preschooler would enjoy to provide the child with opportunities to interact with same-age peers. Activities may involve swimming or dancing lessons, joining a soccer team, attending a house of worship, and so on.
4. Prepare the child for inclusive school placements, and provide support for the transi- tion to elementary school. The transition out of preschool will be facilitated if educa- tors from the receiving elementary school work collaboratively with the family and preschool personnel.
To meet these goals, preschool programs for children with severe disabilities blend the principles and elements of developmentally appropriate practices (DAP), multicultural education, and special education. DAP was developed by the National Association for the Education of Young Children as an alternative to an academic curriculum for preschoolers. It emphasizes age-appropriate child exploration and play activities that are consistent with individual needs. Multicultural education emphasizes acceptance of people from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds within and across the preschool curriculum. Success- ful culturally inclusive programs blend principles and practices that guide special edu- cation, inclusive education, and multicultural education (Gollnick & Chinn, 2012). Special educa- tion focuses on assessing indi- vidual needs, providing intensive instruction, and teaching explicit skills within the context of an in- dividualized education program (IEP). Families, educators, and other professionals committed to DAP, multicultural education, and special education work together to provide a quality experience for preschool-age children with severe disabilities.
Respite care Assistance provided by individuals that allows parents and other chil- dren within the family time away from the child with a disability.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
Photo 12.3 Culturally inclusive preschool programs blend the principles and practices that guide special education, inclusive education, and multicultural education.
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12-6b The Elementary School Years Historically, services and supports for students with severe and multiple disabilities have been oriented to protection and care. The objective was to protect the individual from soci- ety, and society from the individual. This philosophy resulted in programs that isolated the individual and provided physical care rather than preparation for life in a heterogeneous world. Today, educators working together with parents are concentrating their efforts on preparing students with severe and multiple disabilities to participate actively in the life of the family, school, and community. Given the emphasis on lifelong learning and living as independently as possible in natural settings, educators have identified several features that characterize quality programs for elementary-age students with severe and multiple disabilities:
● Self-determination is important—student preferences and needs are taken into ac- count in developing educational objectives.
● The school values and supports parental involvement. ● Instruction focuses on frequently used functional skills related to everyday life activi-
ties and the provision of plenty of opportunities to practice the skills. ● Assistive technology and augmentative communication are available to maintain
or increase the functional capabilities of the student with severe and multiple disabilities.
Self-Determination People with severe and multiple disabilities, like everyone else, must be in a position to make their own life choices as much as possible. School programs that promote self-determination enhance each student’s opportunity to become more independent in the life of the family and in the larger community. Providing stu- dents with severe disabilities the opportunity to communicate their needs and preferences enhances autonomy, problem-solving skills, adaptability, and self-efficacy expectations (Gaumer Erickson, Noonan, Zheng, & Brussow, 2015; Wehmeyer, Gragoudas, & Shogren, 2006). Self-determination skills have been shown to be positively correlated with achievement in math and reading, as well as overall adult outcomes (Gaumer et al., 2015; Wehmeyer et al., 2011).
Parental Involvement Schools are more successful in meeting the needs of stu- dents when they establish positive relationships with the family. The important role parents play during the early childhood years must continue and be supported during elementary school. Parents who actively participate in their child’s educational program promote the de- velopment and implementation of instruction that is consistent with individual needs and preferences. Parental involvement can be a powerful predictor of post-school adjustment for students with severe and multiple disabilities. A strong home–school partnership requires that parents and educators acknowledge and respect each other’s differences in values and culture, listen openly and attentively to one another’s concerns, value varying opinions and ideas, discuss issues openly and in an atmosphere of trust, and share in the responsibility and consequences of making a decision.
Teaching Functional Skills Effective educational programs focus on the functional skills that students with severe and multiple disabilities need to live successfully in the nat- ural settings of family, school, and community. A functional skill is one that will have frequent and meaningful use across multiple environments. Instruction should involve the following elements:
● Many different people ● A variety of settings within the community ● Varied materials that will interest the learner and match performance demands
If the student with severe disabilities is to learn how to cross a street safely, shop in a grocery store, play a video game, or eat in a local restaurant, the necessary skills should
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
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Design Challenge: DIY Assistive Game Controllers Video gaming is a social activity that can empower participants. According to the Entertainment Software Associa- tion (ESA, 2014), “59% of Americans play video games”—many of whom are chil- dren. Those with physical disabilities, however, may find it nearly impossible to participate alongside their peers. Controllers—like those included with Xbox, PlayStation, and Wii consoles— can have over a dozen buttons, often requiring two hands to operate.
The AbleGamers Foundation is a non- profit organization that “aims to im- prove the overall quality of life for those with disabilities through the power of video games.” To that end, it published Includification, a game ac- cessibility guideline to help developers extend accessibility for all.
Simple Switch Interfaces A switch simply turns an electrical signal on or off (e.g., a light switch, the right- click button on a mouse, the space bar on a keyboard). Makey Makey is an easy- to-use kit that can serve as a switch inter- face. Costing about $50, Makey Makey is built on an Arduino circuit board and includes a USB cable, alligator clips, and additional wires. Almost anything that carries an electrical current—pencil graphite, bananas, modeling clay—can become part of the circuit. When the USB is plugged in, the computer’s key- board interface becomes shared with Makey Makey. There are assistive guides posted on its web page, in which a com- puter’s keys are remapped (rerouted) to best work with a person’s needs.
Design Challenges More often than not, a teacher or para- professional is responsible for adapting a device to fit a person’s need. The fol- lowing are sample challenges that can be met using Makey Makey as a do-it- yourself (DIY) assistive game controller:
1. Mini-Keyboard Challenge Able gamers with muscular dystrophy can find movement across a keyboard
to be difficult. However, there are ways to move with greater precision. For example, a trackball interface is often used instead of a mouse—the ball can be rolled without moving or stretch- ing one’s arms. The challenge is to use Makey Makey to move game keys very close together. A solution might be cre- ating a dedicated mini-keyboard for the WASD keys (common in PC games: W 5 up, A 5 left, S 5 down, D 5 right), along with the arrow keys, space bar (in some games this is jump or shoot), and enter button. Users must be able to operate the controller with one idle hand.
2. Macro-Keyboard Challenge Able gamers with cerebral palsy can find fine motor activity to be nearly im- possible. The challenge is to use Makey Makey to spread out the WASD keys, along with the arrow keys, space bar, and enter buttons. Modeling clay on a desk can be used to spread out the in- put keys.
3. Head Mobility Challenge Some able gamers can move only their heads. The challenge is to design a game controller using head movement to take the place of arrow keys. It can work well with dancing games created on Scratch (an online community for building interactive games and anima- tions, sponsored by MIT).
4. Simple Switch Challenge Some able gamers have very restricted mobility. A hand chop, shoulder shrug, or even a tongue move can be used to interact with one-button games. Try Flabby Physics, playable with just the space bar.
I attempted to create a directional head movement interface using Makey Makey. Moving my head could, theo- retically, take the place of arrow keys on my laptop. I could touch my left shoulder with my head to turn left in a game world. First I had a brainstorm- ing session—paper towel rolls, hats, shirt collars, and other apparatus were
considered as materials. I discovered that the most flexible tool for the head movement interface was a small neck- lace made from pipe cleaners. Wearing the contraption proved uncomfortable and awkward. Upon observing this, my wife suggested that I use a travel neck pillow. This accomplished two things: an object to prop up the pipe cleaner ring and something to provide added comfort. Of course, I was testing my own design. To be most effective, try your prototype with a person of need.
Teaching Students to Be Designers Design thinking is considered to be a de- sirable 21st-century or “soft” skill. Bring- ing in students as designers can make the process even more inclusive. Work- ing in teams can create a learning en- vironment in which solutions emerge. A jigsaw cooperative structure would work effectively in the testing phases. Students would then have the oppor- tunity to watch their prototypes used through someone else’s eyes. (Herein lies another challenge—something ob- vious to a designer may not be obvious to users.) Testers can move from group to group. No one should test the same design twice. If you only have one kit, then groups can work in a station, out of view from the rest of the class. The goal is for other students to not see the prototyped design.
Makey Makey is a tool that can make video games accessible for able gam- ers. Take the systemic rather than tech- nocentric approach to integrating this tool. The technology that you’re intro- ducing should not be the sole focus of the activity. Keep in mind that you’re us- ing Makey Makey to remap a keyboard that will enable students of all abilities to play.
SOURCE: From Farber, M. (2014). Design Challenge: DIY As- sistive Game Controllers. Edutopia. Retrieved March 1, 2015, from www.edutopia.org/blog/design-diy-assistive -game-controllers-matthew-farber.
LEARNING THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA
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be taught in the actual setting where the behavior is to be performed. It should not be assumed that a skill learned in a classroom will simply transfer to a setting outside of the school. Instruction in a more natu- ral environment can ensure that the skill will be useful and will be main- tained over time.
As suggested by Drew and Hardman (2007), a functional ap- proach teaches academic skills in the context of environmental cues. The learning of new skills is always paired directly with environmental stimuli. Snell and Brown (2011)
stressed that the teacher must use instructional materials that are real and meaningful to students. Traditional materials, such as workbooks, basal readers, and flash cards, do not work for students with severe disabilities. Students must be taught using real objects in real situations in the home or community setting. For example, when teaching the word exit, pair it with an actual exit sign in a movie theater. Or when teaching the word stop, pair it with a stop sign on a street corner.
Assistive Technology and Augmentative Communication Assistive technology is any item, piece of equipment, or product system that can be used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of students with disabilities (The Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act, PL 100-407 [20 U.S.C. Sec. 140(25)]). An assistive technology service “directly assists an individual with a disabil- ity in the selection, acquisition, or use of an assistive technology device” (20 U.S.C. Sec 140[26]). Johnston (2003) identified several types of assistive technology:
● Aids for daily living (such as nonslip placement to hold a bowl, utensils with built- up handles to provide a better gripping surface, and two-handed mugs to allow for two-handed grasping)
● Communication aids (computers with voice output, hearing aids) ● Aids for working, learning, and playing (braces, artificial limbs, prosthetic hands) ● Mobility aids (wheelchairs, lifts, walkers) ● Positioning aids (cushions, pelvic strips or hip guides, head supports on a wheelchair)
Students with severe and multiple disabilities benefit from any one or more of these assistive devices or activities. For students with severe disabilities who are unable to use speech and need an additional communication mode, augmentative communication will nearly always be an integral component of their individualized education program. Augmentative communication involves adapting existing vocal or gestural abilities into meaningful communication; teaching manual signing (such as American Sign Language), static symbols, or icons (such as PECS), and using manual or electronic communication de- vices (such as electric communication boards, picture cues, or synthetic speech; Westling & Fox, 2009). For more insight into the use of PECS in an instructional setting for students with severe disabilities, see the nearby Case Study on Embracing Diversity, “Ernesto.”
12-6c The Adolescent Years Societal perceptions about the capabilities of people with severe and multiple disabilities have changed a great deal over the past several years. Until very recently, the potential of these individuals to learn, live, and work in community settings was significantly un- derestimated. People with severe and multiple disabilities can become active participants in the lives of their community and family. This realization has prompted professionals
Augmentative communication Communication systems that involve adapting existing vocal or gestural abilities into meaningful communication, or using manual or electronic devices.
PECS A symbol-based communication system developed in 1985 as a unique augmentative alternative communication method for people with developmental disabilities.
Standard 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Photo 12.4 An assistive device, such as this computerized touch screen language board, helps students who are nonverbal to communicate with parents, teachers, and friends.
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12 – 6 I N T E R V E N T I O N S F O R C H I L D R E N A N D YO U T H W I T H M U LT I P L E D I S A B I L I T I E S 305
and parents to seek significant changes in the ways that schools prepare students for the transition to adult life.
In a review of the research on successful community living for people with severe dis- abilities, Crockett and Hardman (2009) address four tasks that are important in planning for the transition to adult life:
● Establish a network of friends and acquaintances. ● Develop the ability to use community resources on a regular basis. ● Secure a paid job that supports the use of community resources and interaction
with peers. ● Establish independence and autonomy in making lifestyle choices.
12-6d Inclusive Education The provision of services and supports in an inclusive educational setting is widely viewed as a critical factor in delivering a quality program for students with severe and multiple
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Standard 3 Curricular Content Knowledge
Meet Ashley
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Pat’s approach of matching words and selecting words required no speech at all. Using these methods, Ashley was quickly able to learn to read a number of meaningful sight words, matching text to text, matching text to image, and then selecting a requested word from a set. Over time, she significantly increased her sight word vocabulary and eventually completed the final step of naming: expressively com- municating her identification of many words using sign language. As she be- gan to read and sign, lo and behold, along came speech.
Sight word cards really show the ad- vantages of designing the materials by computer, including the opportunity to customize the word choices and to keep it constantly fresh and new. And the computer enables uniformity. If the words are to be matched, it is best if they are an exact copy of one another (so that they are truly visually the same), which they cannot be if handwritten. It is quick and easy to accomplish this us- ing a computer.
SOURCE: Voss, K. S. (2005). Teaching by Design. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House (pp. 9, 215).
In the vignette that follows, Kimberly Voss describes how she taught her daughter Ashley, a child born with Down syndrome and severe disabilities, to learn reading through the use of as- sistive technology. Kimberly describes Ashley’s odyssey through life as one of “getting Ashley out”:
Trapped inside a body that does not al- ways do what she asks it to do, we have had to invent and create from scratch numerous methods that allow her to emerge. Her medical diagnosis and de- velopmental label have not been an ac- curate measure of her human potential. Unwilling to accept “can’t” as an option, we have focused on “what if?” Ashley’s determination, as well as mine, has been our key to unlocking door after door, every day revealing more of Ashley’s abilities and character. While she lives with many challenging and complex disabilities, Ashley has emerged as an assertive, independent, loving, and spir- ited young woman with a zest for life and wonderfully keen sense of humor. She will face adversity throughout her life, but we will face it, as we have all the changes that came before, one day and one creative solution at a time (from Voss, 2005, pp. 9–10).
Teaching Ashley to Read Using Assistive Technology When Ashley was quite young, I had the good fortune to attend a work- shop Patricia Oelwein gave before her 1995 book, Teaching Reading to Children with Down Syndrome, was published. Her technique began by following a three-step progression (matching, selecting, and naming) and was very visual, initially teaching sight words rather than phonics or text decoding. Pat suggested starting off by playing simplified matching-type games, matching text to text—for ex- ample, putting the word “Daddy” on “Daddy.” After that was mastered, Pat suggested matching text to an image and then selecting the correct word from a set of different word choices. We would ask, “Give me the card that says ‘Daddy.’” This approach worked very well for Ashley.
For Ashley, teaching sight words held real potential. Because of her com- plex speech problems, Ashley could not verbally describe what letters she was seeing or what words she was reading, making it even more of a challenge to teach her to read. But
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C H A P T E R 12 S E V E R E A N D M U LT I P L E D I S A B I L I T I E S306
Ernesto
CASE STUDY ON EMBRACING DIVERSITY
Ernesto is a 6-year-old kindergarten stu- dent at Armstrong Elementary School. Like most of his friends in his inclusive class, he likes Pokémon and Transform- ers. Unlike his peers, Ernesto has spina bifida and uses a wheelchair. When he was 2 years old, following a series of seizures, he had a shunt surgically im- planted in his head to drain fluids and relieve pressure. Additionally, Ernesto has an intellectual disability and is non- verbal. Ernesto has lived in the United States all of his life, but his parents immi- grated from Peru 15 year ago. The family is bilingual and uses both Spanish and English at home.
The kindergarten teacher, Mr. Carmi- chael, was excited when he learned
Ernesto would be joining his class, but he also had some concerns about how to best meet the needs of all the students in his class. Ms. Rice, the speech and language pathologist, and Ms. Lopez, the inclusion specialist, met with Mr. Carmichael to introduce him to the communication board and the PECS (Picture Exchange Communication Sys- tem) program that Ernesto was going to learn this year. Together, with Ernesto’s parents, they considered strategies to support Ernesto’s bilingualism. They de- cided to introduce Ernesto to PECS with a dozen picture cards that include both languages on each card. This strategy was selected to ensure that the com- munication system would be effective across multiple environments.
Ernesto’s teacher and friends have been communicating with him using the PECS program, and they have learned some Spanish along the way. Mr. Carmichael is excited about Ernesto’s progress and plans to add even more symbols to his communication board, including Pokémon!
Application Questions 1. Why is it important for Ernesto to use bilingual PECS when he is nonverbal?
2. What are the benefits for Ernesto to be included in his neighborhood kin- dergarten class? What are the benefits for his peers?
3. Why is it important to include Poké- mon on Ernesto’s communication board?
disabilities (The ARC, 2012). Effective educational programs include continual opportuni- ties for interaction between students with severe disabilities and peers without disabilities. Frequent and age-appropriate interactions between students with disabilities and their peers without disabilities can enhance opportunities for successful participation in the com- munity during the adult years. Social interaction can be enhanced by creating opportunities for these students to associate both during and after the school day. Successful inclusion efforts are characterized by the following features:
● Physical placement of students with severe and multiple disabilities in the general education schools and classes they would attend if they didn’t have disabilities
● High-level expectations and supports to allow students to access the grade-level standards
● Participation in alternative assessments to monitor growth and achievement ● Systematic organization of opportunities for interaction between students with se-
vere and multiple disabilities and students without disabilities ● Specific instruction in valued post-school outcomes that will increase the competence
of students with severe and multiple disabilities in the natural settings of family, school, and community (Ryndak, Alper, Hughes, & McDonnell, 2012)
One of the most important characteristics of the natural settings in which students ulti- mately must function is frequent interaction with people without disabilities. Consequently, it is logical to plan educational programs that duplicate this feature of the environment and that actively build skills required for successful inclusion. As students with severe and multiple disabilities are included in general education schools and classrooms, it is impor- tant to find ways to encourage social interactions between these students and students who are not disabled. Planned opportunities for interaction may include the use of in-class peer supports (tutors, circles of friends) as well as access to everyday school activities such as assemblies, recess, lunch, and field trips. For more tips on supporting people with severe and multiple disabilities in natural settings, see this chapter’s Community Support for Lifelong Inclusion.
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12 – 6 I N T E R V E N T I O N S F O R C H I L D R E N A N D YO U T H W I T H M U LT I P L E D I S A B I L I T I E S 307
Early Childhood Years Tips for Families
● During the infant and toddler years, seek out family- centered programs that focus on communi – cation and the building of positive relationships among all individual members.
● Seek supports and services for your preschool-age child that promote communication and play activi- ties with same-age peers without disabilities.
● Seek opportunities for friendships to develop between your child and chil- dren without disabilities in family and neighborhood settings.
● Use the individualized family ser- vice plan and the individualized education plan as a means for the multidisciplinar y team to establish goals that develop your child’s social interaction and classroom par ticipa- tion skills.
Tips for Preschool Teachers
● Establish a classroom environment that promotes and supports diversity.
● Use a child-centered approach to instruction that acknowledges and values every child’s strengths, prefer- ences, and individual needs.
● Ignore whatever labels have been used to describe the child with severe and multiple disabilities. There is no rela- tionship between the label and the instruction needed by the child to suc- ceed in natural settings.
● Set high expectations for academic and social success and support the student in meeting them.
● Create opportunities for ongoing com- munication and play activities among children with severe disabilities and their same-age peers without disabili- ties. Nurture interactive peer relation- ships across a variety of instructional areas and settings.
Tips for Preschool Personnel
● Support the inclusion of young chil- dren with severe and multiple disabili- ties in all preschool classrooms and programs.
● Always refer to children by name, not label. If you must employ a label, use “child-first language.” For example say, “children with severe disabilities,” not “severely disabled children.”
● Communicate genuine respect and support for all teachers, staff, and vol- unteers who look for ways to include children with severe disabilities in pre- school classrooms and collaborative school-wide activities.
● Welcome families into the preschool programs. Listen to what parents have to say about the importance of, or concerns about, including their child in school programs and activities.
● Create opportunities for parents to be- come involved in their child’s program through collaborative projects with school personnel, including volunteer- ing, school governance, and the like.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Most importantly, see the child with severe disabilities as an individual who has needs, preferences, strengths, and weaknesses. Avoid the pitfalls of stereotyping and “self-fulfilling prophecies.”
● Support opportunities for your children and those of friends and neighbors to interact and play with a child who has severe and multiple disabilities.
● Help children without disabilities build friendships with children who have severe and multiple disabilities, rather than merely playing caregiving roles.
● Provide a supportive and collaborative community environment for the fam- ily of a young child with severe and multiple disabilities. Encourage the family, including the child, to partici- pate in neighborhood activities.
Elementary Years Tips for Families
● Actively collaborate with the multi- disciplinary team in the development of your son’s or daughter’s IEP. Write down the priorities and educational goals that you see as important for your child in the natural settings of home, school, and community.
● Follow up at home on activities that the school suggests are important for helping your child generalize skills learned at school to other natural settings.
● Actively collaborate with school per- sonnel, whether in your child’s class- room or in extracurricular activities. Demonstrate your appreciation and support for administrators, teachers, and staff who openly value and sup- port the inclusion of your child in the school and classroom.
● Continually collaborate with adminis- trators and teachers on the importance of children with severe disabilities being included with peers without disabilities during classroom and school-wide activities (such as riding on the same school bus, going to recess and lunch at the same time, and partici- pating in school-wide assemblies).
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● See children with severe and mul- tiple disabilities as individuals, not labels. Focus on their similarities with other children rather than on their differences.
● Openly value and support diversity and collaboration in your classroom. Set individualized goals and objectives for all children.
● Develop a classroom environment and instructional program that recognize multiple needs and abilities.
● Become part of a team that continu- ally collaborates to meet the needs of all children in your classroom. View
People with Severe and Multiple Disabilities
COMMUNITY SUPPORT FOR LIFELONG INCLUSION
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C H A P T E R 12 S E V E R E A N D M U LT I P L E D I S A B I L I T I E S308
the special education teacher as a re- source who can assist you in develop- ing an effective instructional program for the child with severe and multiple disabilities.
Tips for School Personnel
● Communicate that diversity is strength in your school. Openly value diversity by providing the resources necessary for teachers to work with students who have a range of needs and come from differing backgrounds.
● Integrate school resources as well as children. Develop school-wide teacher-assistance or teacher-support teams that work collaboratively to meet the needs of every student.
● Collaborate with general and special education teachers in the develop- ment of peer-partner and support networks for students with severe and multiple disabilities.
● Include all students in the programs and activities of the school.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Openly communicate to school per- sonnel, friends, and neighbors your support of families who are seeking to have their child with severe and multi- ple disabilities be a part of an inclusive school setting.
● Communicate to your children and those of friends and neighbors the value of collaboration and inclusion. Demonstrate this value by creating opportunities for children with se- vere disabilities and their families to play an active role in the life of the community.
Secondary and Transition Years Tips for Families
● Seek opportunities for students from your son’s or daughter’s high school to visit your home. Help arrange get- togethers or parties involving students from the neighborhood and/or school.
● Communicate to the school what you see as priorities for your son or daugh- ter as they transition from school into adult life. Suggest goals and objec- tives that promote and support social
interaction and community-based ac- tivities with peers who are not disabled. Collaborate with the school to translate your goals into an individualized edu- cation plan that includes transition activities from school to adult life.
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● Become part of a school-wide team that collaborates to meet the needs of all students in high school. Value the role of the special educator as teacher, collaborator, and consultant who can serve as a valuable resource in planning for the instructional needs of students with severe disabilities. Collaborate with special education teachers and other specialists to adapt subject matter in your classroom (e.g., science, math, or physical education) to the individual needs of students with severe and multiple disabilities.
● Communicate the importance of stu- dents with severe disabilities being included in school programs and activi- ties. Although the goals and activities of this student may be different from those of other students, with support, she or he will benefit from working with you and other students in the class.
● Encourage the student with severe disabilities to become involved in ex- tracurricular high school activities. If you are the faculty sponsor of a club or organization, explore whether this student is interested and how he or she could get involved.
Tips for School Personnel
● Advocate for parents of high school– age students with severe and multiple disabilities to participate in the activi- ties and governance of the school.
● Collaborate with parents in the transition-planning process during the high school years by listening to par- ent input that focuses on a desire for their son or daughter to be included as a valued member of the high school community.
● Support high school special educa- tion or vocational teachers seeking to develop community-based instruction programs that focus on students
learning and applying skills in actual community settings (e.g., grocery stores, malls, theaters, parks, work sites).
Tips for Neighbors, Friends, and Potential Employers
● Collaborate with the family and school personnel to create opportunities for students with severe and multiple dis- abilities to participate in community activities (such as going to the movies, “hanging out” with peers who are not disabled in the neighborhood mall, and going to high school sporting events) as often as possible.
● As a potential employer, collaborate with the high school to locate and es- tablish community-based employment training sites for students with severe and multiple disabilities.
Adult Years Tips for Families
● Develop an understanding of life after school during your son’s or daugh- ter’s adult years. What are the formal (government-funded or parent organi- zations) and informal supports (family and friends) available in your commu- nity? What are the characteristics of adult service programs? Explore adult support systems in the local commu- nity in the areas of supported living, employment, and recreation/leisure.
Tips for Neighbors, Friends, and Potential Employers
● Become part of the community sup- port network for the individual with severe and multiple disabilities. Be alert to ways in which this individual can become and remain actively in- volved in community employment, neighborhood recreational activities, and local church functions.
● As a potential employer in the com- munity, seek information on em- ployment of people with severe and multiple disabilities. Find out about programs (such as supported em- ployment) that focus on establishing work for people with mental retarda- tion while meeting your needs as an employer.
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Looking Toward a Bright Future Throughout history, individuals with severe and multiple disabilities have been forgotten and neglected people, often being denied opportunities for education, social services, and health care. Today, these individuals are receiving more services and supports than ever before, although there is much left to do to assure their full access to and participation in school, family, and community life. As such suggested by TASH (2014b):
Children and adults with disabilities should have opportunities to develop relationships with neighbors, classmates, co-workers, and community members. Adults, whether mar- ried or single, should make decisions about where and with whom they live. The prefer- ences of each individual should be honored in regards to their decisions on community life and participation. Individuals with disabilities and families must be entitled to quality educational supports, decent and affordable housing, financial security, recreation, and employment.
The attitudes and progressive policies of the 21st century bring considerable hope to the lives of people with severe and multiple disabilities. Inclusive education is increasing in our schools; opportunities to live and work in the community are no longer just a dream; and every day the critical support that is needed from family, friends, neighbors, and professionals becomes more and more a natural part of the lives of people with severe disabilities.
Chapter Review
12-1 Describe how the lives of people with severe and multiple disabilities have changed since the advent of IDEA.
● Prior to 1975, when IDEA went into effect, children with mul- tiple disabilities were often excluded from school due to the severity of their disabilities. However, educators now recognize that each individual has potential and will benefit from special- ized services offered by a team of professionals.
● People with severe and multiple disabilities have challenges that transcend the classroom. Although often dependent upon support from others, people with severe and multiple dis- abilities can accomplish much in academics and independent life skills.
12-2 Explain the various definitions and classifica- tions of severe and multiple disabilities.
● Severe disabilities as defined by TASH includes three elements: ● The relationship of the individual within the environment (adaptive fit)
● The value of inclusion of people of all ages ● The necessity of extensive ongoing support in life activities
● Multiple disabilities refers to the layering or concomitance of disabilities (such as intellectual disabilities and orthopedic impairments).
● Deaf–blindness involves concomitant hearing and visual im- pairments. The combination causes communication and other developmental and educational problems so severe that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs de- signed solely for children who are deaf or blind.
12-3 Describe the characteristics and prevalence of children and youth with severe and multiple disabilities.
● Having intellectual disabilities is often a primary condition. ● Most children will not benefit from basic academic instruc- tion in literacy and mathematics. Instruction in functional academics is the most effective approach to learning academic skills.
● People with severe and multiple disabilities often may not have age-appropriate adaptive skills and need ongoing services and supports to facilitate learning in this area.
● Significant speech and language deficits and delays are a pri- mary characteristic.
● Physical and health needs are common, involving conditions such as congenital heart disease, epilepsy, respiratory problems, spasticity, athetosis, and hypotonia. Vision and hearing loss are also common.
● Prevalence estimates generally range from 0.1 percent to 1 percent of the general population.
C H A P T E R R E V I E W
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C H A P T E R 12 S E V E R E A N D M U LT I P L E D I S A B I L I T I E S310
● Students with multiple disabilities recently accounted for about 2 percent of the 7 million students with disabilities served in the public schools. Approximately 0.0002 percent of students with disabilities were labeled deaf–blind.
12-4 List the causes and risk factors associated with severe and multiple disabilities.
● Many possible causes of severe and multiple disabilities exist. Most severe and multiple disabilities are evident at birth. Birth defects may be the result of genetic or metabolic problems. Most identifiable causes of severe intellectual disabilities and related developmental disabilities are genetic in origin. Factors associated with accidents, poisoning, malnutrition, physical and emotional abuse and neglect, and disease are also known causes.
12-5 Describe the assessment procedures used to identify severe and multiple disability in children and youth.
● Children who have severe and multiple disabilities are often identified at a very young age due to the overarching nature of the disability. Once a concern has been identified, further infor- mation in typically gathered through formal assessments. These assessments often include evaluation of fine and gross motor skills, reflexes, vision, hearing, and a complete health screening.
● Traditionally, there has been a heavy reliance on standardized assessments, particularly the IQ test, in identifying people with severe and multiple disabilities.
● Assessments that focus on valued skills to promote indepen- dence and quality of life in natural settings are referred to as functional, ecological, or authentic assessment.
12-6 Describe the different interventions for chil- dren and youth with severe and multiple disabilities from early childhood through adulthood.
● Services and supports must begin at birth. ● Programs for infants and toddlers are both child- and family-centered.
● The goals for preschool programs are to maximize development across several developmental areas, to develop social interac- tion and classroom participation skills, to increase community participation through support to family and caregivers, and to prepare the child for inclusive school placement.
● Effective and inclusive preschool programs have a holistic view of the child, see the classroom as a community of learners, base the program on a collaborative ethic, use authentic assessment, create a heterogeneous environment, make available a range of individualized supports and services, engage educators in reflective teaching, and emphasize multiple ways of teaching and learning.
● Self-determination is important—student preferences and needs are taken into account in developing educational objectives.
● Students with disabilities must participate in statewide and district-wide assessments of achievement, or the school must explain why that assessment is not appropriate for the child. For many students with severe disabilities, these assessments are inappropriate, and the students with disabilities are excluded from taking them. Alternate assessments are conducted instead.
● Instruction focuses on grade-level standards and frequently used functional skills related to everyday life activities.
● Assistive technology and augmentative communication are available to maintain or increase the functional capabilities of the student with severe and multiple disabilities.
● Programs for adolescents and young adults who have severe and multiple disabilities should focus on the following:
● Establishing a network of friends and acquaintances ● Supporting students’ access to grade-level standards ● Developing the ability to use community resources on a regular basis
● Securing a paid job that supports the use of community resources and interaction with peers
● Establishing independence and autonomy in making lifestyle choices
● Physical placement of students with severe and multiple dis- abilities in the general education schools and classes they would attend if they didn’t have disabilities
● Systematic organization of opportunities for interaction between students with severe and multiple disabilities and students without disabilities
● Specific instruction in valued post-school outcomes that will increase the competence of students with severe and mul- tiple disabilities in the natural settings of family, school, and community
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311
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Standards to Accompany Chapter 12
If you are thinking about a career in special education, you should know that many states use national standards developed by the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) to assess a teacher candidate’s knowledge and skills for working with students with disabilities. See a complete listing of the seven CEC Content Standards on the inside cover of this text.
1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
2 Learning Environments 3 Curricular Content Knowledge 4 Assessment 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Mastery Activities and Assignments To master the content within this chapter, complete the following activities and assignments: 1. Complete a written test of the chapter’s content. If your
instructor requires a written test of your content knowl- edge for this chapter, keep a copy for your portfolio.
2. Review the Case Study on Embracing Diversity, “Ernesto,” and respond in writing to the Application Questions.
Keep a copy of the Case Study and your written response for your portfolio.
3. Participate in a community service learning activity. Community service is a valuable way to enhance your learning experience. Develop a reflective journal of the service learning experience for your portfolio.
C H A P T E R R E V I E W
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CHAPTER 13
Sensory Disabilities: Hearing and Vision Loss
Learning Objectives After you complete this chapter, you will be able to:
13-1 Describe how the lives of people with sensory disabilities have changed since the advent of IDEA.
13-2 Explain the various definitions and classifications of sensory disabilities.
13-3 Describe the characteristics and prevalence of children and youth with sensory disabilities.
13-4 List the causes and risk factors associated with sensory disabilities.
13-5 Describe the assessment procedures used to identify sensory disabilities in children and youth.
13-6 Describe the different interventions for children and youth with sensory disabilities from early childhood through adulthood.
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SNAPSHOT Tamika Catchings of the WNBA
Throughout childhood, we all pon- dered the question “What do you want to be when you grow up?” The average grade-schooler had a handful of rotat- ing answers that changed on a daily basis: firefighter, veterinarian, teacher, singer, astronaut, sports star—the list goes on. For most of us, those fanciful dreams were soon replaced with more practical career paths. Tamika Catch- ings, however, is an exception.
Raised in a family known for their love of sports, Tamika decided in the seventh grade that she was going to play in the NBA. It’s worth noting that professional women’s basketball didn’t even exist when she first scrib- bled that goal on her bathroom mirror. Tamika had a vision for her life, and she pursued it ruthlessly from a very young age.
In college, Tamika played for ar- guably the best basketball coach of all time, Pat Summitt, who eventu- ally became a friend and mentor. It was Pat who encouraged Tamika to accept and acknowledge the hearing disability she’d been dealing with since birth—a life-changing decision that would make Tamika a role model for more than just her athletic abili- ties. Going on to win a national cham- pionship title in the WNBA, Tamika can honestly say that her childhood dreams have come true. However, it doesn’t surprise us that she’s still hungry for more. Today, Tamika shares her unique story about how faith, hard work, passion, and sacri- fice got her to the top of her game.
Prior to joining the WNBA with the Indiana Fever, you played college basketball for the legendary Uni- versity of Tennessee Lady Vols, and before that you played high school basketball. When did your love of sports, specifically basketball, begin?
I was raised in a sports family. My father, Harvey Catchings, played in
the NBA. With us moving around when I was young as he went to dif- ferent teams, sports was introduced very early. I was also born with a hearing and speech problem, which created a need for hearing aids. As a child, I was always the one that got teased for the way I looked, the way I talked, or the hearing aids in my ears. That’s how sports became so important to me. On the playing field, I knew that if I practiced and got really good, that no one could make fun of me for any of my disabilities. I used sports and faith as the two out- lets that could keep me “safe.” That has shaped me into the person that I am today because my faith, basket- ball, and my family are my top three priorities. I love giving back to the community, and I love what I do as far as basketball goes, but God and my family have been there for me when nothing else has been.
The best advice our dad gave us was regarding pursuing our passions. He always said, “Play the game as long as you enjoy playing it. Once you don’t enjoy it, it’s time to move on and find out what your next passion is.” I still live by that and love what I’m doing on and off the court.
In college, you began to speak pub- licly about your hearing disability. We can only imagine that this must have been difficult for you growing up. Tell us what that was like. What was it that prompted you to start talking about it?
I was born with a hearing deficiency, and I grew up with hearing aids, glasses, braces—the whole nine yards. I remember going to school when I was younger, and I was made fun of every day—whether it was about the way I looked because I wore big, clunky hearing aids or the way I talked. I just wanted to be normal. I just wanted to fit in. I didn’t want people to notice me. I wasn’t comfort- able talking because people made fun of me. I just wanted to be invisible.
One day, I’d just finally had enough. I was walking home from school with my sister, crying. Walking past a field of grass near my home, I tore off my hear- ing aids and threw them as far as I could.
Over time, I accepted myself for being different. Eventually, Pat Summitt broke it down for me the best when she said, “When people can’t see, they wear glasses; when their teeth need correction, they wear braces; and when people can’t hear, they wear hearing aids.” Having the support of Pat and our trainer Jenny Moshak meant a lot. They sat down with me and showed me how much I could impact the world and change lives just by being able to hear, con- tinuing to be the best that I could be and being able to share my differences with other people. So, ever since then, I’ve embraced that deficiency and I try to help kids who maybe felt the same as I did.
What would you say to someone reading this who is struggling with feeling “different”?
I know it’s easier said than done, but find something that you can become
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passionate about. While my differences brought struggles, being able to play different sports allowed me to not dwell on the negativity.
In 2004, you started your own foundation, Catch the Stars, which
“empowers youth to achieve their dreams” by focusing on literacy, fit- ness, and mentoring. Tell us about why you started your foundation. What have been the greatest chal- lenges in running a charity? Great- est rewards?
I love being able to make a difference in the community. We started the Catch the Stars Foundation (CTSF) to be able to provide opportunities for the youth in our community to achieve their dreams. I knew that I wanted to have my own basketball camp, and that was the first thing we started. Then, from there, we just kept adding programs until we put everything under the Catch the Stars Foundation umbrella in 2004. Growing up, I had a lot of people that stepped in and helped me get
to where I am today, and I aim to provide that same guidance for these kids.
What advice would you give to your 23-year-old self?
Continue to strive to be the best you can be, but don’t forget to enjoy the process while you’re going through it. And, let the past be the past.
SOURCE: Cook, B. (2013). The Everygirl Career Profile: Tamika Catchings of the WNBA. Retrieved March 21, 2015, from http://theeverygirl.com/feature/tamika-catchings-of-the -wnba.
13-1 A Changing Era in the Lives of People with Sensory Disabilities In a world controlled by sight and sound, the ability to see and hear is a critical link to our overall development and perspectives on the world. Children who can hear learn to talk by listening to those around them. Everyday communication systems depend on sound. What, then, would it be like to live in a world that is silent? People talk, but you hear nothing. The television and movie screens are lit up with moving pictures, but you cannot hear and understand what is going on. Your friends talk about their favorite music and hum tunes that have no meaning to you. A fire engine’s siren wails as it moves through traffic, but you are oblivious to its warning. To people with hearing, the thought of such a world can be very frightening. To those without hearing, it is quite simply their world—a place that can be lonely, frustrating, and downright discriminatory. People with a hearing loss may live in isolation from everyday interactions that make life enjoyable. They may feel alienated from friends, family, and the community, and this alienation can evolve into a strong sense of fear and a need to avoid the hearing world.
The frustration of a hearing loss may be felt not only by the person experiencing the loss, but also by those who are close to the individual. This is exemplified by siblings who often feel they are being ignored because their brother or sister with a hearing loss does not respond when called from another room or when their back is turned. Because hearing loss is an “invisible disability,” people who are able to hear often forget to make needed accommodations. It is all too common for a person who can hear accuse a person with a hearing loss of “selectively listening”—that is, choosing what they do or don’t want to hear.
Yet, the most common emotion for people with a hearing loss is the embarrassment that comes from not hearing oral instructions, missing key points in a conversation, or not laughing at someone else’s joke. Unfortunately, isolation, fear, frustration, and embarrass- ment may also characterize the everyday life experiences for individuals with a vision loss. Through the visual process, we observe the world around us, and develop an appreciation for the physical environment and a greater understanding of it. Vision is one of our most important avenues for the acquisition and assimilation of knowledge, but we often take it for granted. From the moment we wake up in the morning, our dependence on sight is obvious. We rely on our eyes to guide us around our surroundings, inform us through the written word, and give us pleasure and relaxation.
What if this stream of visual information were lost or impaired? How would our percep- tions of the world change? Losing sight is one of our greatest fears, partly because of the misconception that people with vision loss are helpless and unable to lead satisfying or productive lives. It is not uncommon for people with sight to have little understanding of those with vision loss. People who are sighted may believe that most adults who are blind
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are likely to be marginalized socially, economically, and culturally. Children who have sight may believe that their peers who are blind are incapable of learning many basic skills, such as telling time and using a computer, or of enjoying leisure and recreational activities such as swimming, watching movies, or playing video games. Throughout history, some religions have even promoted the belief that blindness is a punishment for sins. As you will see in this chapter, the negative perceptions about people with a hearing or vision loss are often inaccurate and misleading. The vast majority of people with a sensory impairment lead active and productive lives and do not allow their hearing or vision loss to deprive them of the life activities they love and value. They experience joy, fulfillment, and a life of endless possibilities no different from that experienced by people who can hear or see. The quality of life for a person with a sensory impairment has been dramatically enhanced since the passage of IDEA, which promises each individual a free and appropriate public education in the most inclusive setting possible. Advances in technology often supported by IDEA research funding have also led to greater independence and opportunities for people who experience vision or hearing loss.
In this chapter, we take a closer look into the lives of people with sensory disabilities— those with vision or hearing loss. We begin our journey with the nearby Snapshot of Tamika Catchings, professional basketball player, all-star, and community leader who also happens to be a person with a hearing loss.
13-2 Definitions and Classifications of Sensory Disabilities Sensory disabilities can include hearing loss, vision loss, or both. Regardless of the nature of the sensory disability, a diagnosis can range from a mild loss to a complete loss of input from vision or hearing.
13-2a Hearing Loss Although Tamika from our opening Snapshot is unable to hear many sounds, her life is one of independence, success, and fulfillment. For Tamika, just as for many people who are deaf or hard of hearing, the obstacles presented by the loss of hearing are not insur- mountable. People with a hearing loss are able to learn about the world around them in any number of ways, such as lip-reading, gestures, pictures, and writing. Some people are able to use their residual hearing with the assistance of a hearing aid. For others, a hearing aid doesn’t help because it only makes distorted sounds louder. To express them- selves, some people prefer to use their voices; others prefer to use a visual sign language. Most people with a hearing loss use a combination of speech and signing. People with a hearing loss, such as Tamika, may seek and find success in a fully inclusive community. Others seek to be part of a deaf community or deaf culture to share a common language (American Sign Language) and customs. In a deaf culture, those within the community share a common heritage and traditions. People often select life partners from within the community. They also have a shared literature and participate in the deaf community’s political, business, arts, and sports programs. People in the deaf community do not see the loss of hearing as a disability. From their perspective, being deaf is not an impair- ment and should not be looked upon as a pathology or disease that requires treatment. It is simply another way of being that focuses on a communication system that is unique to people who have hearing loss.
The Hearing Process To understand hearing loss, we must first understand how normal hearing works. Audition is the act or sense of hearing. The auditory process in- volves the transmission of sound through the vibration of an object to a receiver. The pro- cess originates with a vibrator—such as a string, reed, membrane, or column of air—that causes displacement of air particles. To become sound, a vibration must have a medium to carry it. Air is the most common carrier, but vibrations can also be carried by metal, water, and other substances. The displacement of air particles by the vibrator produces a pattern of circular waves that move away from the source.
Audition The act or sense of hearing.
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This movement, which is referred to as a sound wave, can be illustrated by imagining the ripples resulting from a pebble dropped in a pool of water. Sound waves are patterns of pressure that alternately push together and pull apart in a spherical expansion. Sound waves are carried through a medium (e.g., air) to a receiver. The human ear is one of the most sensitive receivers there is; it is capable of being activated by incredibly small amounts of pressure and being able to distinguish more than a half million different sounds. The ear is the mechanism through which sound is collected, processed, and transmitted to an area in the brain that decodes the sensations into meaningful language. The anatomy of the hearing mechanism is discussed in terms of the outer, middle, and inner ears. These structures are illustrated in Figure 13.1.
Definitions of Hearing Loss Two terms, deaf and hard of hearing (or partial hearing), are commonly used to indicate the severity of a person’s hearing loss. Deaf is often overused and misunderstood and is commonly applied to describe a wide spectrum of hear- ing loss. However, as discussed in this chapter, the term should be used in a more precise fashion.
Hearing loss may be defined according to the degree of hearing impairment, which is determined by assessing a person’s sensitivity to loudness (sound intensity) and pitch (sound frequency). The unit used to measure sound intensity is the decibel (dB); the range of human hearing is approximately 0 dB to 130 dB. Sounds louder than 130 dB (such as those made by jet aircraft at 140 dB) are extremely painful to the ear. Conversational speech registers at 40 dB to 60 dB, loud thunder at about 120 dB, and a rock concert at about 110 dB.
The frequency of sound is determined by measuring the number of cycles that vibrat- ing molecules complete per second. The unit used to measure cycles per second is the hertz (Hz). The higher the frequency, the greater the measure in hertz. The human ear can hear sounds ranging from 20 to approximately 13,000 Hz. Speech sounds range in pitch from 300 Hz to 4,000 Hz, whereas the pitches made by a piano keyboard range from 27.5 Hz to 4,186 Hz. Although the human ear can hear sounds at the 13,000 Hz level, the vast majority of sounds in our environment range from 300 Hz to 4,000 Hz.
Deafness Deafness describes people whose hearing loss is in the extreme: meaning they can only hear at 90 dB or greater. Even with the use of hearing aids or other forms of ampli- fication, the primary means for developing language and communication for people who are
Hertz (Hz) A unit used to measure the frequency of sound in terms of the number of cycles that vibrating molecules complete per second.
Figure 13.1 Structure of the Ear
Malleus
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
External acoustic meatus
Eustachian tube
Incus
Cochlea
Auricle or pinna
Lateral semicircular canal
Posterior semicircular canal
Superior semicircular canal
Auditory nerve (hearing nerve)
Stapes
Vestibule
Vestibular mechanism
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deaf is through the visual channel. Deafness as defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) means “a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is im- paired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification, which adversely affects educational performance” (IDEA, 34 C.F.R. 300.7).
People who are deaf are most often described as those who cannot hear sound. Conse- quently, individuals are unable to understand human speech. Many people who are deaf have enough residual hearing to recognize sound at certain frequencies, but they still may be unable to determine the meaning of the sound pressure waves.
Hard of Hearing (Partial Hearing) For people defined as hard of hearing, au- dition is deficient but remains somewhat functional. Individuals who are hard of hearing have enough residual hearing that, with the use of a hearing aid, they are able to process human speech auditorily.
The distinction between deaf and hard of hearing, based on the functional use of re- sidual hearing, is not as clear as many traditional definitions imply. New breakthroughs in the development of hearing aids, as well as improved diagnostic procedures and medi- cal procedures, have enabled many children labeled deaf to use their hearing functionally under limited circumstances.
In addition to the individual’s sensitivity to loudness and pitch, two other factors are involved in defining deafness and hard of hearing: the age of onset and the anatomical site of the loss.
Age of Onset Hearing loss may be present at birth (congenital) or acquired at any time during life. Prelingual loss occurs prior to the age of 2, or before speech development. Postlingual loss occurs at any age following speech acquisition. In nine out of ten children, deafness occurs at birth or prior to the child’s learning to speak. The distinction between a congenital and an acquired hearing loss is important. The age of onset will be a critical vari- able in determining the type and extent of interventions necessary to minimize the effect of the individual’s disability. This is particularly true in relation to speech and language devel- opment. A person who is born with hearing loss has significantly more challenges, particu- larly in the areas of communication and social adaptation (Centers for Disease Control, 2015a; Correa-Torres, 2008).
Anatomical Site of the Hearing Loss In terms of anatomical location, the two primary types of hearing loss are peripheral problems and central auditory problems. There are three types of peripheral hearing loss: conductive, sensorineural, and mixed. A conductive hearing loss is caused by something that blocks the sounds from getting through the outer or inner ear. The loss may result from a blockage in the external canal, as well as from an obstruction interfering with the movement of the eardrum or ossicle. The overall effect is a reduction or loss of loudness. A conductive loss can be offset by amplification (hearing aids) and medical intervention. Surgery has been effective in reducing a conductive loss or even in restoring hearing.
A sensorineural hearing loss occurs when there is a problem in the way the inner ear or hearing nerve works. A sensorineural loss may distort sound, affecting the clarity of human speech; it cannot presently be treated adequately through medical intervention. A sensorineural loss is generally more severe than a conductive loss and is permanent. Losses of greater than 70 dB are usually sensorineural and involve severe damage to the inner ear. One common way to determine whether a loss is conductive or sensorineural is to administer an air and bone conduction test. An individual with a conductive loss would be unable to hear a vibrating tuning fork held close to the ear, because of blocked air passages to the inner ear, but may be able to hear the same fork applied to the skull just as well as someone with normal hearing would. An individual with a sensorineural loss would not be able to hear the vibrating fork, regardless of its placement. This test is not always accurate, however, and must therefore be used with caution in distinguishing between conductive and sensorineural losses. Mixed hearing loss, a combination of con- ductive and sensorineural problems, can also be assessed through the use of an air and bone conduction test. In the case of a mixed loss, abnormalities are evident in both tests.
Prelingual loss Pertaining to hearing impairments occurring prior to the age of 2, or the time of speech development.
Postlingual loss Pertaining to hearing impairments occurring at any age following speech development.
Conductive hearing loss A hearing loss resulting from poor conduction of sound along the passages leading to the sense organ.
Sensorineural hearing loss A hearing loss resulting from an abnormal sense organ (inner ear) and a damaged auditory nerve.
Mixed hearing loss A hearing loss resulting from a combination of conductive and sensorineural problems.
Deafness A hearing loss greater than 90 dB. Individuals who are deaf have vision as their primary input and cannot understand speech through the ear.
Hard of hearing A sense of hearing that is deficient but somewhat functional.
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Although most hearing losses are peripheral, as are conductive and sensorineural prob- lems, some occur where there is no measurable peripheral loss. This type of loss, which is referred to as a central auditory disorder, occurs when there is a dysfunction in the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex, the outer layer of gray matter of the brain, governs thought, reasoning, memory, sensation, and voluntary movement. Consequently, a central auditory problem is not a loss in the ability to hear sound, but a disorder of symbolic processes, including auditory perception, discrimination, comprehension of sound, and language development (expressive and receptive).
Classification of Hearing Loss Hearing loss may be classified according to the severity of the condition. The symptom severity classification system shown in Table 13.1 presents information relative to a child’s ability to understand speech patterns at the various severity levels.
Classification systems based solely on a person’s degree of hearing loss should be used with a great deal of caution when determining appropriate services and supports. These systems do not reflect the person’s capabilities, background, or experience; they merely suggest parameters for measuring a physical defect in auditory function. As a young child, for example, Tamika from the opening Snapshot was diagnosed as having a hearing loss in both ears, yet throughout her life she successfully adjusted to both school and community experiences. Clearly, many factors beyond the severity of the hearing loss must be assessed when determining an individual’s potential. In addition to severity of loss, factors such as general intelligence, emotional stability, scope and quality of early education and training, the family environment, and the occurrence of other disabilities must also be considered.
13-2b Vision Loss To more fully understand the nature of vision loss within the context of normal sight, we begin with a Snapshot, a personal story about Darran who is a college student with a vision impairment. We then review the physical components of the visual system and define the terms blind and partially sighted.
The physical components of the visual system include the eye, the visual cortex in the brain, and the optic nerve, which connects the eye to the visual cortex. The basic anatomy of the human eye is illustrated in Figure 13.2. The cornea is the external covering of the eye, and in the presence of light, it bends or refracts visual stimuli. These light rays pass through the pupil, which is an opening in the iris. The pupil dilates or constricts to control the amount of light entering the eye. The iris, the colored portion of the eye, consists of membranous tissue and muscles whose function is to adjust the size of the pupil. The lens, like the cornea, bends light rays so that they strike the retina directly. As in a camera lens, the lens of the eye reverses the images. The retina consists of light-sensitive cells that transmit the image to the brain via the optic nerve. Images from the retina remain upside down until they are neurally flipped over in the visual cortex occipital lobe of the brain.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Visual cortex The visual center of the brain, located in the occipital lobe.
Optic nerve The nerve that connects the eye to the visual center of the brain.
Cornea The external covering of the eye.
Pupil The expandable opening in the iris of the eye.
Iris The colored portion of the eye.
Lens The clear structure of the eye that bends light rays so they strike the retina directly.
Retina Light-sensitive cells in the interior of the eye that transmit images to the brain via the optic nerve.
Table 13.1 Classification of Hearing Loss
Hearing Loss in Decibels (dB) Classification Effect on Ability to Understand Speech
0 to 13 Normal hearing None
16 to 25 Slight hearing loss Minimal difficulty with soft speech
26 to 40 Mild hearing loss Difficulty with soft speech
41 to 55 Moderate hearing loss Frequent difficulty with normal speech
56 to 70 Moderate to severe hearing loss Occasional difficulty with loud speech
71 to 90 Severe hearing loss Frequent difficulty with loud speech
>91 Profound hearing loss Near total or total loss of hearing
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The visual process is much more complex than suggested by a description of the physi- cal components involved. The process is an important link to the physical world, helping us to gain information beyond the range of other senses, while also helping us to integrate the information acquired primarily through hearing, touch, smell, and taste. For example, our sense of touch can tell us that what we are feeling is furry, soft, and warm, but only our eyes must tell that it is a brown rabbit with a white tail and pink eyes. Our nose may perceive something with yeast and spices cooking, but our eyes must confirm that it is a large pepperoni pizza with bubbling mozzarella and green peppers. Our hearing can tell us that a friend sounds angry and upset, but only our vision can register the scowl, clenched jaw, and stiff posture. The way we perceive visual stimuli shapes our interactions with and reactions to the environment, while providing a foundation for the development of a more complex learning structure.
The term vision loss encompasses people with a wide range of conditions, including those who have never experienced sight, those who had normal vision prior to becoming partially or totally blind, those who experienced a gradual or sudden loss of acuity across their field of vision, and those with a restricted field of vision. A variety of terms are used to define vision loss; this has created some confusion among professionals in various fields of study. The rationale for the development of multiple definitions is directly related to their intended use. For example, eligibility for income tax exemptions or special assistance from the American Printing House for the Blind requires that individuals with vision loss qualify under one of two general subcategories: blind or partially sighted (low vision).
Blind Condition in which central visual acuity does not exceed 20/200 in the better eye with correcting lenses, or in which visual acuity, if better than 20/200, is limited in the central field of vision.
Figure 13.2 The Parts of the Human Eye
The lens focuses light on the retina.
The choroid is the layer of tissue containing blood vessels that carry nutrients.
Ciliary muscles pull and push on suspensory ligaments to control the lens, which they make thicker to focus on near objects and thinner to focus on distant objects.
The pupil is the opening through which light passes. It opens wide in dim light and closes down in bright light to protect the retina.
The cornea is the transparent layer that protects the front of the eye and helps focus light.
The sclera is a fibrous outside layer of tissue.
The fovea is the area where the sharpest images are detected.
The optic nerve carries information to the brain. There is a blind spot where the nerve exits the eye.
The conjunctiva helps protect the eye.
Eye muscles rotate the eye and hold it in place inside the orbit (eye socket).
Aqueous and vitreous humors contain blood vessels and help the eye maintain its shape.
The iris dilates or contracts by muscles to control the the amount of light entering the eye.
PupilIris
The retina is the inner layer where light-sensitive cells are located.
Sclera
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SNAPSHOT Darran
Meeting the challenges of graduate school, no matter which program, can be daunting. Among the second- year students at the University of Utah is Darran Zenger. His dream is to become a social worker, which in- volves a demanding list of classes and practicums and training in different areas—learning people skills and understanding government aid.
Darran and his guide dog, Archer, maneuver campus and the social work program with determination. Darran has Usher syndrome: Born deaf, he wears cochlear implants. And his sight continues to deteriorate with retinitis pigmentosa. He believes he knows exactly how to help others with disabilities.
“My experience growing up, it was normalized,” he said. “You lose vi- sion, you lose hearing, so what? It’s just a challenge, that’s all it is.”
Holding his arms outstretched, he slowly brings them in to demonstrate his sight range.
In Darran’s presentation to fellow students earlier this semester, ti- tled “Seeing through Blindness,” he
described one of his pet peeves: people who say, “You don’t look blind.”
“I mean, not to be rude or anything, but you don’t look stupid,” Darran said.
His classmates laugh. He under- stands who needs him.
Twenty million people suffer from total blindness in the United States, the narrator in Darran’s presentation video says. “Losing vision is a very traumatic experience for many peo- ple,” Darran explained. When people become legally blind, he says, it af- fects their family relationships, their social life and their employment. “For blind or visually impaired individu- als, the unemployment rate, just in that population, is 70 to 75 percent,” Darran said.
Darran’s fellow classmates see him as not only a regular member of the group, but also, because of his disabilities, a little more caring than most. Callie Tatum took notes for Darran their first year in grad school. She says he was always more concerned about her. “He’s looking out for his individual peers,” Tatum
said. “That’s kind of a humbling, eye- opening moment to experience.”
Mary Beth Fitzpatrick says Darran never defines himself by his disabili- ties. “He talks it and he walks it so that 98 percent of the time I’m really not aware that there’s anything cra- zier about him than the rest of us who are doing social work, you know?” Fitzpatrick said.
His professors say he speaks vol- umes just being who he is. “Just the fact that there is a Darran, that will speak to the people he works with whether they’re children or teens or grown-ups,” professor David Der- ezotes said.
Darran will receive his degree this spring and then hopes to deliver a message of possibilities. “We can’t change the world overnight but we can change the world one person at a time,” he said. He carries that mes- sage of hope to families and individu- als who need to hear from him.
SOURCE: Mikita, C. (2014). “Despite Disabilities, U. Student Spreads Message of Hope.” Retrieved November 20, 2014, from www.ksl.com/?nid=148&sid=32239160#Asmv0R7V X9OZwthx.03.
Blindness The term blindness has many meanings. In fact, there are over 150 citations for blind in an unabridged dictionary. Legal blindness, as defined by the Social Security Administration (2015), means either that vision cannot be corrected to better than 20/200 in the better eye or that the visual field is 20 degrees or less, even with a corrective lens. Many people who meet the legal definition of blindness still have some sight and may be able to read large print and get around without support (i.e., without a guide dog or a cane).
As we have noted, the definition of legal blindness includes both acuity and field of vision. Visual acuity is most often determined by reading letters or numbers on a chart using the Snellen test or by using an index that refers to the distance from which an ob- ject can be recognized. People with normal eyesight are defined as having 20/20 vision. However, if an individual is able to read at 20 feet what a person with normal vision can read at 200 feet, then his or her visual acuity would be described as 20/200. Most people consider those who are legally blind to have some light perception; only about 20 percent are totally without sight. A person is also considered blind if his or her field of vision is limited at its widest angle to 20 degrees or less (see Figure 13.3). A restricted field is also referred to as tunnel vision (or pinhole vision or tubular vision). A restricted field of vision severely limits a person’s ability to participate in athletics, read, or drive a car.
Blindness can also be characterized as an educational disability. Educational defini- tions of blindness focus primarily on students’ ability to use vision as an avenue for learn- ing. Children who are unable to use their sight and rely on other senses, such as hearing
Legal blindness Visual acuity of 20/200 or worse in the best eye with best correction as measured on the Snellen test, or a visual field of 20 percent or less.
Visual acuity Sharpness or clearness of vision.
Snellen test A test of visual acuity.
Tunnel vision A restricted field of vision that is 20 degrees or less at its widest angle.
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and touch, are described as functionally blind. Functional blindness, in its simplest form, may be defined in terms of whether vision is used as a primary channel of learning. Re- gardless of the definition used, the purpose of labeling a child as functionally blind is to ensure that he or she receives an appropriate instructional program. This program must assist a student who is blind in utilizing other senses as a means to succeed in a classroom setting and, in the future, as an independent and productive adult.
Partial Sight (Low Vision) People with partial sight or low vision have a visual acu- ity greater than 20/200 but not greater than 20/70 in the best eye after correction. The field of education also distinguishes between being blind and being partially sighted when determin- ing what level and extent of additional support services a student requires. The term partially sighted describes students who are able to use vision as a primary source of learning.
A vision specialist often works with students with vision loss to make the best possible use of remaining sight. This includes the elimination of unnecessary glare in the work area, removal of obstacles that could impede mobility, use of large-print books, and use of special lighting to enhance visual opportunities. Although children with low vision often use printed materials and special lighting in learning activities, some use braille because they can see only shadows and limited movement. These children benefit from the use of tactile or other sensory channels to gain maximum benefit from learning opportunities (Anghel, 2012; Lund & Troha, 2008; Poon & Ovadia, 2008; Supalo, Malouk, & Rankel, 2008). Children with low vision should be given opportunities to use their residual sight in conjunction with visual stimulation training to improve their ability to use sight as an av- enue for learning. Additionally, Anghel (2012) found that engaging children with low vision in rich pretend play and dialogue about toys that have surprises, tricks, or secrets can aid in their development of theory of mind, which forms the foundation for early social skills.
Classifying Vision Loss Vision loss may be classified according to the anatomical site of the problem. Anatomical disorders include impairment of the refractive structures of the eye, muscle anomalies in the visual system, and problems of the receptive structures of the eye.
Refractive Eye Problems The most common types of vision loss occur when the refrac- tive structures of the eye (cornea or lens) fail to focus light rays properly on the retina. The four types of refractive problems are hyperopia, or farsightedness; myopia, or nearsighted- ness; astigmatism, or blurred vision; and cataracts.
Hyperopia occurs when the eyeball is excessively short from front to back (has a flat corneal structure), forcing light rays to focus behind the retina. People with hyperopia can clearly visualize objects at a distance but cannot see them at close range. These individuals may require convex lenses so that a clear focus will occur on the retina.
Myopia occurs when the eyeball is excessively long (has increased curvature of the corneal surface), forcing light rays to focus in front of the retina. People with myopia can view objects at close range clearly but cannot see them from a distance (such as 100 feet). Eyeglasses may be necessary to assist in focusing on distant objects. Figure 13.4 illustrates the myopic and hyperopic eyeballs, and compares them to the normal human eye.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Partially sighted Visual acuity greater than 20/200 but not greater than 20/70 in the better eye after correction.
Braille A writing system for the blind that involves combinations of six raised dots punched into paper, which can be read with the fingertips.
Refractive problems Visual disorders that occur when the refractive structures of the eye fail to properly focus light rays on the retina.
Hyperopia Farsightedness; a refractive prob- lem wherein the eyeball is exces- sively short, focusing light rays behind the retina.
Myopia Nearsightedness; a refractive prob- lem wherein the eyeball is exces- sively long, focusing light in front of the retina.
Standard 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Figure 13.3 The Field of Vision
(a) 180º Normal field of vision is about 180º. º
(b) 20º A person with a field of vision of 20 or less is considered blind.
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Astigmatism occurs when the curvature or surface of the cornea is uneven, preventing light rays from converging at one point. The rays of light are refracted in different direc- tions, producing unclear, distorted visual images. Astigmatism may occur independently of or in conjunction with myopia or hyperopia.
Cataracts occur when the lens becomes opaque, resulting in severely distorted vision or total blindness. Surgical treatment for cataracts (such as lens implants) has advanced rapidly in recent years, returning most of the vision that was lost.
Muscle Disorders Muscular defects of the visual system occur when one or more of the major muscles within the eye are weakened in function, resulting in a loss of control and an inability to maintain tension. People with muscle disorders cannot maintain their focus on a given object for even short periods of time. The three types of muscle disorders are nystagmus (uncontrolled rapid eye movement), strabismus (crossed eyes), and amblyopia (an eye that appears normal but does not function properly). Nystagmus is a continuous, involuntary, rapid movement of the eyeballs in either a circular or a side-to-side pattern. Strabismus occurs when the muscles of the eyes are unable to pull equally, thus preventing the eyes from focusing together on the same object. Internal strabismus (esotropia) occurs when the eyes are pulled inward toward the nose; external strabismus (exotropia) occurs when the eyes are pulled out toward the ears. The eyes may also shift on a vertical plane (up or down), but this condition is rare. Strabismus can be corrected through surgical interven- tion. People with strabismus often experience a phenomenon known as double vision, be- cause the deviating eye causes two very different pictures to reach the brain. To correct the double vision and reduce visual confusion, the brain attempts to suppress the image in one eye. As a result, the unused eye loses its ability to see. This condition, known as amblyopia, can also be corrected by surgery or by forcing the affected eye into focus by covering the unaffected eye with a patch.
Receptive Eye Problems Disorders associated with the receptive structures of the eye occur when there is a degeneration of or damage to the retina and the optic nerve. These disorders include optic atrophy, retinitis pigmentosa, retinal detachment, retinopathy of prematurity, and glaucoma. Optic atrophy is a degenerative disease that results from the deterioration of nerve fibers connecting the retina to the brain. Retinitis pigmentosa, the most common hereditary condition associated with loss of vision, appears initially as night blindness and gradually causes degeneration of the retina. Eventually, it results in total blindness.
Retinal detachment occurs when the retina separates from the choroid and the sclera. This detachment may result from disorders such as glaucoma, retinal degeneration, or extreme myopia. It can also be caused by trauma to the eye, such as a boxer receiving a hard right hook to the face.
Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) is one of the most devastating eye disorders in young children. It occurs when too much oxygen is administered to premature infants, resulting in the formation of scar tissue behind the lens of the eye, which prevents light rays from reaching the retina. ROP gained attention in the early 1940s, with the advent of better incubators for infants born premature. These incubators substantially improved the
Figure 13.4 Normal, Myopic, and Hyperopic Eyeballs
40 ft
In normal vision, an image is focused on the retina.
(a) Normal
In nearsightedness, (myopia), the image is focused in front of the retina.
(b) Myopic (c) Hyperopic
In farsightedness, (hyperopia), the image is focused behind the retina.
Astigmatism A refractive problem that occurs when the cornea surface is uneven or structurally defective, prevent- ing light rays from converging at one point.
Cataract A clouding of the eye lens, which becomes opaque, resulting in visual problems.
Nystagmus Uncontrolled rapid eye movements.
Strabismus Crossed eyes (internal) or eyes that look outward (external).
Amblyopia Loss of vision due to an imbalance of eye muscles.
Esotropia A form of strabismus causing the eyes to be pulled inward toward the nose.
Exotropia A form of strabismus in which the eyes are pulled outward toward the ears.
Optic atrophy A degenerative disease caused by deteriorating nerve fibers connect- ing the retina to the brain.
Retinitis pigmentosa A hereditary condition resulting from a break in the choroid.
Retinal detachment A condition that occurs when the retina is separated from the choroid and sclera.
Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) A term now used in place of retro- lental fibroplasia.
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concentration of oxygen available to infants, but resulted in a drastic increase in the num- ber of children with vision loss. The disorder has also been associated with neurological, speech, and behavior problems in children and adolescents. Now that a relationship has been established between increased oxygen levels and blindness, premature infants can be protected by careful control of the amount of oxygen received in the early months of life.
13-3 Characteristics and Prevalence of Sensory Disabilities Hearing loss and vision loss can result in a range of characteristics discussed in the fol- lowing sections. Both classifications are considered low incidence because relatively few people are diagnosed with these disabilities.
13-3a Characteristics of Hearing Loss The effects of hearing loss on the learning or social adjustment of individuals are extremely varied, ranging from far-reaching (as in prelingual sensorineural deafness) to quite mini- mal (as in a mild postlingual conductive loss). Fortunately, prevention, early detection, and intervention have recently been emphasized, resulting in a much-improved prognosis for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing.
Intelligence Research on the intellectual characteristics of children with hearing loss has suggested that the distribution of IQ scores for these individuals is similar to that of hearing children (Moores, 2008; Phillips, Wiley, Barnard, & Meinzer-Derr, 2014). Findings suggest that intellectual development for people with hearing loss is more a function of language de- velopment than of cognitive ability. Any difficulties in performance appear to be closely as- sociated with speaking, reading, and writing the English language, but are not related to level of intelligence. For example, children using sign language have to divide their attention be- tween the signs and the instructional materials. Although the child may seem slower in learn- ing, it may be that the child simply needs more time to process the information.
Speech and English Language Skills Speech and English language skills are the areas of development most severely affected for those with a hearing loss, particularly for children who are born deaf. These children develop speech at a slower pace than their peers with normal hearing; thus, they are at greater risk for emotional difficulties and isolation from their peers and family (Ching & Dillon, 2013; Hintermair, 2008; Kaland & Salvatore, 2012). The effects of a hearing loss on English language development vary considerably. For children with mild and moderate hearing losses, the effects may be minimal. Even for indi- viduals born with moderate losses, effective communication skills are possible because the voiced sounds of conversational speech remain audible. Although individuals with moderate losses cannot hear unvoiced sounds (such as a sigh or cough) and distant speech, English language delays can be prevented if the hearing loss is diagnosed and treated early (Hinter- mair, 2008; Jackson & Schatschneider, 2014). The majority of people with hearing loss are able to use speech as the primary mode of English language acquisition.
For the person who is congenitally deaf, most loud speech is inaudible, even with the use of the most sophisticated hearing aids. These people are unable to receive information through speech unless they have learned to lip-read. Spoken language produced by people who are deaf may be difficult to understand. Children who are deaf exhibit significant problems in articulation, voice quality, and tone discrimination. Even as early as 8 months of age, babies who are deaf appear to babble less than babies who can hear. One way to assist these babies in developing language is to provide early and specialized training in English language production and comprehension. Another approach is to teach them sign language long before they learn to speak. Because hand–eye coordination develops earlier in infants than verbal skills, signs, such as “yes,” “no,” “please,” “more,” “stop,” or “milk,” can be learned before any speech develops. For an infant or toddler with a hearing loss, the ability to communicate with parents, teachers, and caregivers is critical. Sign language can be a very functional form of communication as exemplified in the following situation.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
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“Languishing in front of the TV, watching a gripping episode of Teletubbies, a baby of 10 months waves down Mom and signals for a bottle of the good stuff. No crying, no fuss. He just moves his hands in a pantomime of milking a cow—the international sign for milk. Mom smiles, signs back her agreement, and fetches Junior’s bottle.” (McKeen, 2012)
Parents of infants with a hearing loss often ask the question, “At what age can I begin to teach sign language?” It is important to remember that a hearing loss is most often not related to cog- nitive ability. Therefore, infants with a hearing loss can learn cognitive tasks, such as signing, at the same age as their hearing peers (about 8 months). Gestures, such as throwing kisses or waving “bye-bye,” are forms of sign language.
Educational Achievement The educa- tional achievements of students with a hearing loss may be significantly delayed compared with achievements of students who can hear. Stu- dents who are deaf or have a partial hearing loss have considerable difficulty succeeding in an educational system that depends primarily on the spoken word and written language to trans- mit knowledge. Low achievement is characteris- tic of students who are deaf (Heine & Slone, 2008; Marschark, Shaver, Nagle, & Newman,
2015); they average three to four years below their age-appropriate grade levels. Reading is the academic area most negatively affected for students with a hearing loss. Any hearing loss, whether mild or profound, appears to have detrimental effects on reading performance (Cupples et al., 2014; Narr, 2008). To counteract the difficulty with conventional reading mate- rials, specialized instructional programs have been developed for students with a hearing loss (Marschark & Spencer, 2011; McAnally, Rose, & Quigley, 2005; Poobrasert & Cercone, 2009).
Social Development A hearing loss affects a person’s capacity to receive and pro- cess auditory stimuli. People who are deaf or have a partial hearing loss receive a reduced amount of auditory information. That information is also distorted, compared with the audi- tory input received by those with normal hearing. Thus, the perceptions of auditory informa- tion by people with a hearing loss, particularly those who are deaf, will differ from those who can hear. Ultimately, this difference in perception has a direct effect on each individual’s social adjustment to the hearing world.
Reviews of the literature on children’s social and psychological development suggest that there are developmental differences between children who are deaf and children who can hear (Kaland & Salvatore, 2012; Scheetz, 2004; Stanzione & Schick, 2014). Different or delayed language acquisition may lead to more limited opportunities for social inter- action. Children who are deaf may have more adjustment challenges when attempting to communicate with children who can hear. However, they appear to be more secure when conversing with peers who have a hearing loss.
For some people who are deaf, social isolation from the hearing world is not consid- ered an adjustment problem. On the contrary, it is a natural state of being where people are bonded together by a common language, customs, and heritage. People in the deaf culture seek out one another for social interaction and emotional support. The language of the culture is sign language, where communication occurs through hand signs, body language, and facial expressions. Sign language is not one universal language. American Sign Language (ASL) is different from Russian Sign Language (RSL), which is different from French Sign Language (FSL), and so on. ASL is not a form of English or of any other language. It has its own grammatical structure, which must be mastered in the same way as the grammar of any other language. (American Sign Language is discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.)
Deaf culture A culture where people who are deaf become bonded together by a common language (sign language), customs, and heritage, and rely on each other for social interaction and emotional support.
Photo 13.1 Sign language can enhance the communication and language skills of young children with a hearing loss.
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In addition to a common language, the deaf culture also has its own unique set of interactive customs. For example, people who are deaf value physical contact with one another even more than people in a hearing community. It is common to see visual and animated expressions of affection, such as hugs and handshakes in both greetings and departures. Regardless of the topic, discussions are frank, and there is no hesitation in getting to the point. Gatherings within the deaf culture may last longer because people like to linger. This may be particularly true at a dinner, where it is perfectly okay to sign (talk) with your mouth full. It will obviously take longer to eat because it is difficult to sign and hold a knife and fork at the same time.
Within the deaf community, the social identity of being a person who is deaf is highly valued, and there is a fierce internal loyalty. Everyone is expected to support activities within the deaf culture, whether in sports, arts and literature, or political networks. The in- ternal cohesion among the community’s mem- bers includes a strong expectation that people will marry within the group. In fact, nine out of ten people in the deaf culture marry others within the same community. This loyalty is so strong that parents who are deaf may hope for a child who is deaf to pass on the heritage and tradition of the deaf culture to their offspring. Although hearing people may be welcomed within the deaf community, they are seldom accepted as full members.
13-3b Prevalence of Hearing Loss Hearing loss usually gets worse over time and increases dramatically with age. Estimates of hearing loss in the United States go as high as 30 million people. Of these 30 million, ap- proximately 11 million people have significant irreversible hearing loss, and one million are deaf. Only 5 percent of people with hearing loss are under the age of 17; nearly 43 percent are over the age of 65. Contrast this to the fact that only 12 percent of the general population is over the age of 65 years (Centers for Disease Control, 2015a; National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2015a). Men are more likely than women to have a hearing loss; Caucasians are proportionately overrepresented among people with a hearing loss. The prevalence of hearing loss decreases as family income and education increase.
The U.S. Department of Education (2014) indicated that more than 69,000 students defined as having a hearing impairment and between the ages of 6 and 21 are receiv- ing special education services. These students account for approximately 0.1 percent of school-age students identified in the United States as having a disability. It is important to note that these figures represent only those students who receive special education services; a number of students with hearing loss who could benefit from additional ser- vices do not receive them. Of the students with a hearing loss receiving special education, approximately 58 percent were being served in general education classrooms for at least 80 percent of the school day. Another 29 percent spent at least a part of their day in a general education classroom, and 13 percent in separate public/private day schools or residential living facilities for students with a hearing loss (ibid.).
13-3c Characteristics of Vision Loss A vision loss present at birth will have a more significant effect on individual development than one that occurs later in life. Useful visual imagery may disappear if sight is lost prior to the age of 5. If sight is lost after the age of 5, it is possible for the person to retain some visual memories. These memories may be maintained for years to come, assisting the per- son to better understand newly learned concepts. Total blindness that occurs prior to age 5 has the greatest negative influence on overall functioning. However, many people who are blind from birth or early childhood are able to function at about the same level as sighted people of equal ability.
Standard 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Photo 13.2 When 20-year- old Terence Parkin arrived at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, his goal was to make his mark for South Africa and show the world what people who are deaf can accomplish. Terence, who was born with a severe hearing disability and uses sign language to communicate with his coach, achieved his goal by swimming to a silver medal in the 200-meter breaststroke. “I think it will confirm that deaf people can do things,” he said afterward. “Other people will hopefully think now that we’re just like other people. The only thing deaf people can’t do is hear.”
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Intelligence Children with vision loss sometimes base their perceptions of the world on input from senses other than vision. This is particularly true of children who are congeni- tally blind, whose learning experiences are significantly restricted by the lack of vision. Con- sequently, everyday learning opportunities that people with sight take for granted, such as reading the morning newspaper or watching television news coverage, may be substantially altered.
Reviews of the literature on intellectual development suggest that children with vision loss differ from children with sight in some areas of intelligence, ranging from understand- ing spatial concepts to a general knowledge of the world (Batshaw, Roizen, & Lotrecchiano, 2012; McLinden & McCall, 2006). However, comparing the performances of individuals with and without sight may not be appropriate because those with sight have an advantage. The only valid way to compare the intellectual capabilities of these children must be based on tasks in which vision loss does not interfere with performance.
Speech and Language Skills For children with sight, speech and language devel- opment occur primarily through the integration of visual experiences and the symbols of the spoken word. Depending on the degree of loss, children with vision loss are at a distinct disadvantage in developing speech and language skills because they are unable to visually associate words with objects. As a result, such children must rely on hearing or touch for input, and their speech may develop at a slower rate. Once these children have learned speech, however, it is typically fluent.
Preschool-age and school-age children with vision loss may develop a phenomenon known as verbalisms, or the excessive use of speech (wordiness), in which individuals may use words that have little meaning to them (e.g., “Crusaders are people of a religious sex” or “Lead us not into Penn Station”). Some research suggests that children with vi- sual impairments may have a restricted oral vocabulary, compared with that of sighted peers, because they lack the visual input necessary to piece together all of the information available in a given experience (Papadopoulos, Argyropoulos, & Kouroupetroglou, 2008; Sacks & Silberman, 2000).
Academic Achievement The academic achievement of students with vision loss may be significantly delayed, compared with that of students with sight. Numerous factors may influence academic achievement for students with vision loss. In the area of written language, these students have more difficulty organizing their thoughts to write a composi- tion because they lack the same opportunities as children with sight to read newspapers and magazines. Decoding in the area of reading may be delayed because students with visual impairments often use braille or large-print books as the media to decode. Decoding is a much slower process when a reader is using these two media. Reading comprehension is also affected because it depends so much on the experiences of the reader. Once again, the experience of students with visual impairments may be much more limited than that of stu- dents with sight; therefore these children don’t bring as much information to the reading task (Papadopoulos, Argyropoulos, & Kouroupetroglou, 2008).
Other possible reasons for delays in academic achievement range from excessive school absences due to the need for eye surgery or treatment to years of failure in programs that did not meet each student’s specialized needs. On the average, children with vision loss lag two years behind sighted children in grade level. Thus, any direct comparisons be- tween students with vision loss and those with sight would indicate significantly delayed academic growth for the visually impaired. However, this might have resulted from chil- dren with vision loss entering school at a later age, from frequent absence due to medical problems, or from lack of appropriate school resources and facilities.
Social Development The ability of children with vision loss to adapt to the social environment depends on a number of factors, both hereditary and experiential. It is true that each of us experiences the world in his or her own way, but common bonds provide a foundation on which to build perceptions of the world around us. One such bond is vision. Without vision, perceptions about ourselves and those around us can be drastically distorted.
Verbalisms Excessive use of speech (wordiness) in which individuals use words that have little meaning to them.
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For people with vision loss, these differences in perception may produce some social- emotional challenges. Children with vision loss are less likely to initiate a social interac- tion and have fewer opportunities to socialize with other children (Anghel, 2012; Leigh & Barclay, 2000; Steinweg, Griffin, Griffin, & Gingras, 2005). They are often unable to imi- tate the physical mannerisms of others and, therefore, do not develop one very important component of social communication: body language. Because the subtleties of nonverbal communication can significantly alter the intended meaning of spoken words, people’s inability to learn and use visual cues (such as facial expressions and hand gestures) has profound consequences for interpersonal interactions. People with vision loss can neither see the visual cues that accompany the messages received from others nor sense the mes- sages that they may be conveying through body language.
Differences between people with a vision loss and those who are sighted may also result from exclusion of the person with a vision loss from social activities that are integrally related to the use of sight (such as sports and movies). People with vision loss are often excluded from such activities without a second thought, simply because they cannot see. This reinforces the mistaken notion that they do not want to participate and would not enjoy these activities. Social skills can be learned and effectively used by people with vi- sion loss. Excluding them from social experiences more often stems from negative public attitudes than from the individuals’ lack of social adjustment skills.
Orientation and Mobility A unique limitation facing people with vision loss is the challenge of moving about from place to place. These individuals may be unable to orient themselves to other people or objects in the envi- ronment simply because they cannot see them and therefore do not understand their own rela- tive position in space. Consequently, they may be unable to move in the right direction and may fear getting injured, so they may try to restrict their movements to protect themselves. Parents and professionals may contribute to such fears by overprotecting an individual who has vision loss from the everyday risks of life. Shielding in this way will hinder the person’s acquisition of independent mobility skills and create an atmo- sphere that promotes lifelong overdependence on caregivers.
Vision loss can affect fine motor coordination and interfere with the ability to ma- nipulate objects. Poor eye–hand coordination interferes with learning how to use tools related to job skills and daily living skills (such as using eating utensils, a toothbrush, or a screwdriver). Prevention or remediation of fine motor problems may require training in the use of visual aid magnifiers and improvement of basic fine motor skills. This training must begin early and focus directly on experiences that will enhance opportunities for independent living.
Perceptual-Motor Development Perceptual-motor development is essential in the development of locomotion skills, but it is also important in the development of cogni- tion, language, socialization, and personality. Most children with vision loss appear to have perceptual discrimination abilities (such as discriminating texture, weight, and sound) comparable to those of children with sight (Hallemans, Ortibus, Truijen, & Meire, 2011). Children with vision loss do not perform as well on more complex tasks of perception, in- cluding form identification, spatial relations, and perceptual-motor integration (Bouchard & Tetreault, 2000).
13-3d Prevalence of Vision Loss The prevalence of vision loss is often difficult to determine. For example, although about 20 percent of children and adults in the United States have some vision loss, most of these conditions can be corrected to a level where they do not interfere with everyday tasks (such
Photo 13.3 Author and mountain climber Erik Weihenmayer didn’t let blindness interfere with his life’s passion: to scale some of the world’s highest mountains.
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C H A P T E R 13 S E N S O R Y D I S A B I L I T I E S : H E A R I N G A N D V I S I O N L O S S328
as reading, playing, or driving a car). Approximately 1 in 3,000 U.S. children is considered legally blind (American Printing House for the Blind, Inc., 2014), while 3 percent of the total population (9 million people) have a significant vision loss that will require some type of specialized services and supports. About 5 percent of U.S. children (approximately 1.2 million) have a serious eye disorder (KidSource, 2012). This figure increases to 20 percent for people over the age of 65. If cataracts are included, nearly 50 percent of people over the age of 65 have a significant vision loss. The U.S. Department of Education (2014) reports that approximately 23,000 students with a visual impairment between the ages of 6 and 21 received specialized services under IDEA in U.S. public schools. This accounts for 0.4 percent of all students with disabilities receiving special education services.
13-4 Causes Associated with Sensory Disabilities There are many causes and risk factors that can lead to sensory disabilities, including condi- tions present at birth, those resulting from illnesses, and as a result of an injury.
13-4a Hearing Loss: Causes and Risk Factors A number of congenital (existing at birth) or acquired factors may result in a hearing loss. Approximately one child in a thousand is born deaf because of factors associated with he- redity, maternal rubella or German measles, or drugs taken during pregnancy. Substance abuse, disease, and constant exposure to loud noises are all causes of hearing loss. Loss of hearing is also a normal part of the aging process, beginning as early as the teen years when the high-frequency hearing of childhood starts to diminish.
Heredity Although more than 200 types of deafness have been related to hereditary fac- tors, the cause of 18 percent of prelingual hearing loss remains unknown. Because genetic defects that cause hearing loss are usually rare, they are not included in routine prenatal genetic screenings. One of the most common diseases affecting the sense of hearing is otosclerosis. The cause of this condition is unknown, but it is generally believed to be he- reditary and is manifested most often in early adulthood. The condition is characterized by abnormal bone remodeling in the middle ear. About 10 percent of adults have otosclerosis; it can be passed from one generation to the next but not manifest itself for several generations. Hearing loss results in about 13 percent of all cases of otosclerosis and at a rate for females that is twice the rate for males. People with otosclerosis experience high-pitched throbbing or ringing sounds known as tinnitus. There is no specific treatment or any medication that will improve the hearing in people with otosclerosis. Surgery (stapedectomy) may be recom- mended when the stapes (stirrup) bone is involved.
Prenatal Disease Several conditions, although not inherited, can result in sensori- neural loss. The major cause of congenital deafness is infection, of which rubella, cytomega- lovirus (CMV), and toxoplasmosis are the most common. The rubella epidemic of 1963 to 1965 dramatically increased the incidence of deafness in the United States. During the 1960s, approximately 10 percent of all congenital deafness was associated with women contracting rubella during pregnancy. For about 40 percent of the individuals who are deaf, the cause is rubella. About 50 percent of all children with rubella incur a severe hearing loss. Most hear- ing losses caused by rubella are sensorineural, although a small percentage may be mixed. In addition to hearing loss, children who have had rubella sometimes acquire heart disease (50 percent), cataracts or glaucoma (40 percent), and intellectual disabilities (40 percent). Since the advent of the measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) vaccine, the elimination of this dis- ease has become a nationwide campaign, and the incidence of rubella has dramatically de- creased. However, the Center for Disease Control (2015) data indicate a 300 percent increase in rubella rates from 2009 to 2014. This increase could be due to selective nonparticipation in MMR vaccination.
Congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) is viral infection that is spread through body fluids. CMV is the most frequently occurring virus among newborns and is characterized
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Otosclerosis A disease of the ear characterized by destruction of the capsular bone in the middle ear and the growth of a weblike bone that attaches to the stapes. The stapes is restricted and unable to function properly.
Tinnitus High-pitched throbbing or ringing sounds in the ear, associated with disease of the inner ear.
Congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) Viral infection that spreads by close contact with another person who is shedding the virus in body secretions.
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13 – 4 C AU S E S A S S O C I AT E D W I T H S E N S O R Y D I S A B I L I T I E S 329
by jaundice, microcephaly, hemolytic anemia, mental disabilities, hepatosplenomegaly (enlargement of the liver and spleen), and hearing loss. Although no vaccine is currently available to treat CMV, some preventive measures can be taken—such as ensuring safe blood transfusions, practicing good hygiene, and avoiding contact with people who have the virus. CMV is detectable in utero through amniocentesis.
Congenital toxoplasmosis infection is characterized by jaundice and anemia, but frequently the disease also results in central nervous system disorders (such as seizures, hydrocephalus, and microcephaly). Approximately 13 percent of infants born with this disease are deaf.
Other factors associated with congenital sensorineural hearing loss include maternal Rh-factor incompatibility and the use of ototoxic drugs. Maternal Rh-factor incompat- ibility does not generally affect a firstborn child, but as antibodies are produced during subsequent pregnancies, multiple problems can result, including deafness. Fortunately, deafness as a result of Rh-factor problems is no longer common. Since the advent of an anti-Rh gamma globulin (RhoGAM) in 1968, the incidence of Rh-factor incompatibil- ity has significantly decreased. If RhoGAM is injected into the mother within the first 72 hours after the birth of the first child, she does not produce antibodies that harm future unborn infants.
A condition known as atresia is a major cause of congenital conductive hearing loss. Congenital aural atresia results when the external auditory canal is either malformed or completely absent at birth. A congenital malformation may lead to a blockage of the ear canal through an accumulation of cerumen, which is a wax that hardens and blocks incom- ing sound waves from being transmitted to the middle ear.
Postnatal Disease One of the most common causes of hearing loss in the postnatal period is infection. Postnatal infections—such as measles, mumps, influenza, typhoid fever, and scarlet fever—are all associated with hearing loss. Meningitis is an inflammation of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord and is a cause of severe hearing loss in school-age children. Sight loss, paralysis, and brain damage are further complications of this disease. The incidence of meningitis has significantly declined over the three decades, how- ever, thanks to the development of antibiotics and chemotherapy.
Another common problem that may result from postnatal infection is otitis media, an inflammation of the middle ear. This condition, which can result from severe colds that spread from the eustachian tube to the middle ear, is the most common cause of conductive hear- ing loss in younger children. Otitis media (also called “ear infection”) ranks second to the common cold as the most common health problem in preschool children. Three out of every four children have had at least one episode by the age of 3. The disease is difficult to diagnose, especially in infancy, at which time symptoms are often absent. Otitis media has been found to be highly correlated with hearing problems (Moore, 2007; National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2015b).
Environmental Factors Environmental factors—including extreme changes in air pressure caused by explosions, physical abuse of the cranial area, impact from foreign ob- jects during accidents, and loud music—also contribute to acquired hearing loss. Loud noise is rapidly becoming a major cause of hearing problems; about 30 million people are sub- jected to dangerous noise levels in everyday life (National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2015b; Owen, 2007). Most of us are subjected to hazardous noise, such as noise from jet engines and loud music, more often than ever before. With the popularity of headphones and earbuds, such as those used with iPods or MP3 players, many
Congenital toxoplasmosis infection Characterized by jaundice and anemia, this disease frequently results in central nervous system disorders.
Hydrocephalus Condition resulting in excess cere- brospinal fluid in the brain.
Atresia The absence of a normal opening or cavity.
Otitis media An inflammation of the middle ear.
Photo 13.4 Loud noise is a leading cause of hearing problems. Adolescents are subjected to damaging noise levels when headphones and earbuds on smartphones or MP3 or DVD players are turned up too high.
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C H A P T E R 13 S E N S O R Y D I S A B I L I T I E S : H E A R I N G A N D V I S I O N L O S S330
people (particularly adolescents) are subjected to damaging noise levels. Occupational noises (such as those from jackhammers, tractors, and sirens) are now the leading cause of sensorineural hearing loss. Other factors associated with acquired hearing loss include degenerative processes in the ear that may come with aging, cerebral hemorrhages, allergies, and intercranial tumors.
13-4b Vision Loss: Causes and Risk Factors Vision loss may be associated with both genetic and acquired disorders. A number of genetic conditions can result in vision loss, including:
● albinism (resulting in photophobia because of lack of pigmentation in eyes, skin, and hair),
● retinitis pigmentosa (degeneration of the retina), ● retinoblastoma (malignant tumor in the retina), ● optic atrophy (loss of function of optic nerve fibers), ● cataracts (opaque lens resulting in severely distorted vision), ● severe myopia associated with retinal detachment, ● lesions of the cornea, ● abnormalities of the iris (coloboma or aniridia), ● microphthalmia (abnormally small eyeball), ● hydrocephalus (excess cerebrospinal fluid in the brain) leading to optic atrophy, ● anophthalmia (absence of the eyeball), and ● glaucoma or buphthalmos (abnormal distention and enlargement of the eyeball).
Glaucoma results from increased pressure within the eye that damages the optic nerve if left untreated. It is responsible for about 4 percent of all blindness in children (Batshaw, Roizen, & Lotrecchiano, 2012). The incidence of glaucoma is highest in people over the age of 40 who have a family history of the disease. Glaucoma is treatable, either through surgery to drain fluids from the eye or through the use of medicated eye drops to reduce pressure.
Acquired disorders associated with vision loss may occur prior to, during, or after birth. Several factors present prior to birth, such as radiation or the introduction of drugs into the fetal system, may result in vision loss. A major cause of blindness in the fetus is infection, which may be due to diseases such as rubella and syphilis. Other diseases that can result in blindness include influenza, mumps, and measles.
One of the leading causes of acquired blindness in children worldwide is vitamin A deficiency (xerophthalmia). Xerophthalmia is ranked among the World Health Organiza- tion’s top ten leading causes of death through disease in developing countries (United Nations World Food Programme, 2012).
Another cause of acquired blindness is retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). As noted earlier, ROP results from administering oxygen over prolonged periods of time to infants with low birth weight. Almost 80 percent of preschool-age blind children lost their sight as a result of ROP during the peak years of the disease (1940s through 1960s).
Vision loss after birth may be due to several factors. Trauma, infections, inflammations, and tumors are all related to loss of sight. Cortical visual impairment (CVI) is a leading cause of acquired blindness. CVI, which involves damage to the occipital lobes and/or the visual pathways to the brain, can result from severe trauma, asphyxia, seizures, infec- tions of the central nervous system, drugs, poisons, or other neurological conditions. Most children with CVI have residual vision.
The most common cause of preventable blindness is trachoma. This infectious disease affects more than 150 million people worldwide. Trachoma is associated with compromised living standards and hygiene (such as lack of water and unsanitary conditions) within a community. Although the incidence of trachoma has been reduced worldwide, it remains a serious health risk to millions of people in rural areas with significant levels of poverty (Lewallen et al., 2008).
Albinism Lack of pigmentation in eyes, skin, and hair.
Photophobia An intolerance to light.
Retinoblastoma A malignant tumor in the retina.
Microphthalmia An abnormally small eyeball.
Anophthalmia Absence of the eyeball.
Glaucoma A disorder of the eye, which is char- acterized by high pressure inside the eyeball.
Buphthalmos An abnormal distention and enlargement of the eyeball.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Xerophthalmia Vitamin A deficiency that can lead to a lack of mucous-producing cells (known as dry eye) or blindness.
Cortical visual impairment (CVI) A leading cause of acquired blind- ness, which involves damage to the occipital lobes and/or the visual pathways to the brain, resulting from severe trauma, infections, or drug abuse.
Trachoma Infectious bacterial disease associ- ated with poor living standards and inadequate hygiene. Leads to blindness due to repeated infec- tions causing irritation and scars on the eyelids.
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13 – 5 I D E N T I F I C AT I O N A N D A S S E S S M E N T O F S E N S O R Y D I S A B I L I T I E S I N C H I L D R E N A N D YO U T H 331
The most common vision problems in adults, particularly those over the age of 60, are caused by macular degeneration. This condition is the result of a breakdown of the tis- sues in the macula (a small area in the middle of the retina). Macular degeneration affects more than 165,000 people each year, and 16,000 of them go blind as a result of the disease. Nearly two million Americans have impaired vision due to macular degeneration. With macular degeneration, central vision becomes distorted and blurry. The individual also has considerable difficulty differentiating colors (Riddering, 2008). New advances in the treatment of macular degeneration include laser surgery and drug therapy.
13-5 Identification and Assessment of Sensory Disabilities in Children and Youth Sensory disabilities are often noticed first by parents or caregivers and then formally di- agnosed by a medical specialist.
13-5a Assessment of Hearing Loss Early detection of a hearing loss can prevent or at least minimize the impact of the disability on the overall development of individuals. Generally, it is the responsibility of the pediatri- cian or family practitioner to be aware of a problem and to refer the family to an appropri- ate hearing specialist. This requires that the physician be familiar with family history and conduct a thorough physical examination of the child. The physician must be alert to any symptoms (such as delayed language development) that indicate potential sensory loss.
An otologist is a medical specialist who is most concerned with the hearing organ and its diseases. Otology is a component of the larger specialty of diseases of the ear, nose, and throat. Otologists, like pediatricians, screen for potential hearing problems, but the process is much more specialized and exhaustive. Otologists also conduct an extensive physical examination of the ear to identify syndromes that are associated with conduc- tive or sensorineural loss. This information, in conjunction with family history, provides data used to recommend appropriate medical treatment that may involve medical therapy or surgical intervention.
Common therapeutic procedures include monitoring aural hygiene (e.g., keeping the external ear free from wax), blowing out the ear (e.g., a process to remove mucus blocking the eustachian tube), and administering antibiotics to treat infections. Surgical techniques may involve the cosmetic and functional restructuring of congenital malformations such as a deformed external ear or closed external canal (atresia). Fenestration is the surgical creation of a new opening in the labyrinth of the ear to restore hearing. A stapedectomy is a surgical process conducted under a microscope whereby a fixed stapes is replaced with a prosthetic device capable of vibrating, thus permitting the transmission of sound waves. A myringoplasty is the surgical reconstruction of a perforated tympanic membrane (eardrum).
Another widely used surgical procedure is the cochlear implant. This electronic device is surgically placed under the skin behind the ear. It consists of four parts: (1) a micro- phone for picking up sound, (2) a speech processor to select and arrange sounds picked up by the microphone, (3) a transmitter and receiver/stimulator to receive signals from the speech processor and convert them into electric impulses, and (4) electrodes to collect the impulses from the stimulator and send them to the brain. The implant does not restore or amplify hearing. Instead, it provides people who are deaf or profoundly hard of hearing with a useful “sense” of sound in the world around them. The implant overcomes “nerve deafness” (sounds blocked from reaching the auditory nerve) by getting around damage to the tiny hair cells in the inner ear and directly stimulating the auditory nerve. An implant electronically finds useful or meaningful sounds, such as speech, and then sends these sounds to the auditory nerve.
Cochlear implants are becoming more widely used with both adults and children. More than 219,000 children and adults worldwide have had the surgery (National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2015c). Some adults who were deafened in their later years reported useful hearing following the implant; others still needed
Macular degeneration An age-related condition in which the macula (tissues within the retina) break down, resulting in distorted and blurred central vision.
Otologist Specialist involved in the study of the ear and its diseases.
Cochlear implant Procedure that implants an elec- tronic device under the skin behind the ear to directly stimulate the auditory nerve.
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speech-reading to understand the spoken word. Most children receive the implants be- tween the ages of 2 and 6 years. Debate continues about which age is optimal for the sur- gery, but it appears that the earlier, the better. The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (2012) suggests that the younger a child who was born deaf receives an implant, the greater the benefit achieved in the areas of speech perception and speech and language development. The existing research suggests that cochlear implants assist in the learning of speech, language, and social skills, particularly for young children. However, there are still issues to be addressed, such as understanding the risk of pos- sible damage to an ear that has some residual hearing, as well as the risk of infection from the implant (Berg, Ip, Hurst, & Herb, 2007).
Whereas an otologist offers a biological perspective on hearing loss, an audiologist emphasizes the functional impact of losing one’s hearing. Audiologists first screen in- dividuals for a hearing loss and then determine both the nature and the severity of the condition. Social, educational, and vocational implications of the hearing loss are then discussed and explored. Although audiologists are not specifically trained in the field of medicine, these professionals interact constantly with otologists to provide a comprehen- sive assessment of hearing.
Working together, audiologists and otologists provide assistance in the selection and use of hearing aids. At one time or another, most people with a hearing loss will probably wear hearing aids. Hearing aids amplify sound, but they do not correct hearing. Hearing aids have been used for centuries. Early acoustic aids included cupping one’s hand be- hind the ear as well as the ear trumpet. Modern electroacoustic aids do not depend on the loudness of the human voice to amplify sound, but utilize batteries to increase volume. Electroacoustic aids come in three main types: body-worn aids, behind-the-ear aids, and in-the-ear aids. Which hearing aid is best for a particular person depends on the degree of hearing loss, the age of the individual, and his or her physical condition.
The behind-the-ear aid (also referred to as an ear-level aid) is a common electroacoustic device for children with a hearing loss. All components of the behind-the-ear aid are fit- ted in one case behind the outer ear. The case then connects to an earmold that delivers the signal directly to the ear. In addition to their portability, behind-the-ear aids have the advantage of producing the greatest amount of electroacoustic flexibility (amount of amplification across all frequencies). The primary disadvantage is a problem with acoustic feedback. As discussed earlier in this chapter, the behind-the-ear aid may be used with an FM-RF system. These aids may be fitted monaurally (on one ear) or binaurally (on both ears).
The in-the-ear aid fits within the ear canal. All major components (microphone, am- plifier, transducer, and battery) are housed in a single case that has been custom-made for an individual user. The advantage of the in-the-ear aid is the close positioning of the microphone to the natural reception of auditory signals in the ear canal. In-the-ear aids are recommended for people with mild hearing losses who do not need frequent changes in earmolds. Accordingly, these aids are not usually recommended for young children.
Although the quality of commercially available hearing aids has improved dramati- cally in recent years, they have distinct limitations. Commercial hearing aids make sounds louder, but do not necessarily make them more clear and distinct. The criteria for deter- mining the effectiveness of a hearing aid must be based on how well it fits, as well as each individual’s communication ability. The stimulation of residual hearing through a hearing aid enables most people with a hearing loss to function as hard of hearing. However, the use of a hearing aid must be implemented as early as possible, before sensory deprivation takes its toll on a child. It is the audiologist’s responsibility to weigh all the factors involved (such as convenience, size, and weight) in the selection and use of an aid for an individual. The individual should then be directed to a reputable hearing aid dealer.
13-5b Assessment of Vision Loss Much like the assessment of hearing loss, early detection of vision loss is critical to maximize vision and minimize the effects often associated with low vision. Pediatricians or family practitioners are often the first professionals to complete a formal vision assessment. The
Audiologist A specialist in the assessment of a person’s hearing ability.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
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13 – 5 I D E N T I F I C AT I O N A N D A S S E S S M E N T O F S E N S O R Y D I S A B I L I T I E S I N C H I L D R E N A N D YO U T H 333
assessment process typically includes a variety of activities and tools to measure the level of vision and function a child has. It is considered best practice to use a variety of methods to assess vision. Once a vision loss has been detected, interventions generally involve the following steps:
● Correction of the vision to the greatest extent possible ● Prevention or reduction of developmental problems that typically occur in children
with limited vision ● Support and education for the family (New York State Department of Health
[NYSDOH], 2015)
Initial screenings for vision loss are usually based on an individual’s visual acuity. Visual acuity may be measured through the use of the Snellen test, developed in 1862 by Dutch ophthalmologist Herman Snellen. This visual screening test is used primarily to measure central distance vision. The subject stands 20 feet from a letter chart, or E chart (the stan- dard eye chart for testing vision), and reads each symbol, beginning with the top row. The different sizes of each row or symbol represent what a person with normal vision would see at the various distances indicated on the chart. As indicated earlier in this chapter, a person’s visual acuity is then determined via an index that refers to the distance at which an object can be recognized. People with normal eyesight are defined as having 20/20 vision.
Because the Snellen test measures only visual acuity, it must be used primarily as an initial screening device that is supplemented by more in-depth assessments, such as a thorough ophthalmological examination. Parents, physicians, school nurses, and educa- tors must also carefully observe a child’s behavior, and document a complete history of possible symptoms of a vision loss. These observable symptoms fall into three categories: appearance, behavior, and complaints. Table 13.2 describes some warning signs of vision loss. The existence of symptoms does not necessarily mean a person has a significant vi- sion loss, but it does indicate that an appropriate specialist should be consulted for further examination.
Prevention Prevention of vision loss is one of the major goals of the field of medicine. Because some causes of blindness are hereditary, it is important for the family to be aware of genetic services. One purpose of genetic screening is to identify those who are planning to have a family and who may possess certain detrimental genotypes (such as albinism or reti- noblastoma) that can be passed on to their descendants. Screening may also be conducted after conception to determine whether an unborn fetus possesses any genetic abnormalities.
Table 13.2 Warning Signs of Visual Problems
Physical Symptoms Observable Behavior Complaints
Eyes are crossed. Blinks constantly Frequent dizziness
Eyes are not functioning in unison. Trips or stumbles frequently Frequent headaches
Eyelids are swollen and crusted, with red rims.
Covers one eye when reading Pain in the eyes
Eyes are overly sensitive to light. Holds reading material either very close or very far away
Itching or burning of the eyes or eyelids
Sties occur frequently. Distorts the face or frowns when concentrating on something in the distance
Double vision
Eyes are frequently bloodshot. Walks cautiously
Pupils are of different sizes. Fails to see objects that are to one side or the other
Eyes are constantly in motion.
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Following screening, a genetic counselor informs the parents of the test results so that the family can make an informed decision about conceiving a child or carrying a fetus to term.
Adequate prenatal care is another means of preventing problems. Parents must be made aware of the potential hazards associated with poor nutritional habits, the use of drugs, and exposure to radiation (such as X-rays) during pregnancy. One example of preventive care during this period is the use of antibiotics to treat various infections (influenza, measles, and syphilis, for example), thus reducing the risk of infection to an unborn fetus.
Developmental screening is also a widely recognized means of prevention. Early screen- ing of developmental problems enables the family physician to analyze several treatment alternatives and, when necessary, refer the child to an appropriate specialist for a more thorough evaluation of developmental delays.
This screening—which includes examination of hearing, speech, motor, and psycholog- ical development—includes attention to vision as well. Early screening involves a medical examination at birth, assessing the physical condition of the newborn, and also obtaining a complete family medical history. The eyes should be carefully examined for any abnor- malities, such as infection or trauma.
At 6 weeks of age, visual screening forms part of another general developmental as- sessment. This examination should include input from the parents about how their child is responding (e.g., smiling and looking at objects or faces). The physician should check eye movement and search for infection, crusting on the eyes, or epiphora, an overflow of tears resulting from obstruction of the lachrymal ducts.
The next examination should occur at about 6 months of age. A defensive blink should be present at this age, and eye movement should be full and coordinated. If any imbalance in eye movements is noted, a more thorough examination should be conducted. Family history is extremely important, because in many cases there is a familial pattern of vision problems.
Between the ages of 1 and 5 years, visual evaluation should be conducted at regular in- tervals. An important period occurs just prior to the child entering school. Visual problems must not go undetected as children attempt to cope with the new and complex demands of the educational environment.
13-6 Interventions and Treatments for Sensory Disabilities from Early Childhood Through Adulthood Regardless of the age of a person when diagnosed with a sensory disability, interventions and treatment are essential to assist in academic or occupational skills, independence, and confidence.
13-6a Intervention Strategies for Youth Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing In the United States, educational programs for children who are deaf or hard of hearing emerged in the early 19th century. The residential school for the deaf was the primary model for delivery of educational services; it was a live-in facility where students were segregated from the family environment. In the latter half of the 19th century, day schools were estab- lished in which students lived with their families while attending special schools exclusively for deaf students. As the century drew to a close, some public schools established special classes for children with a hearing loss within general education schools.
The residential school continued to be a model for educational services well into the 20th century. However, with the introduction of electrical amplification, advances in medi- cal treatment, and improved educational technology, more options became available within the public schools. Today, educational programs for students who are deaf or hard of hearing range from the residential school to inclusive education in a general education classroom with support services.
Epiphora An overflow of tears from obstruction of the lachrymal ducts of the eye.
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
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13 – 6 I N T E R V E N T I O N S A N D T R E AT M E N T S F O R S E N S O R Y D I S A B I L I T I E S F R O M E A R LY C H I L D H O O D T H R O U G H A D U LT H O O D 335
Research strongly indicates that children with a hearing loss must receive early inter- vention as soon as possible if they are to learn the language skills necessary for reading and other academic subjects (Gilbertson & Ferre, 2008; Lederberg, Miller, Easterbrooks, & McDonald, 2014; McGowan, Nittrouer, & Chenausky, 2008). There is little disagreement that the education of children with a hearing loss must begin at the time of the diagnosis. Educational goals for students with a hearing loss are comparable to those for students who can hear. Students with a hearing loss bring many of the same strengths and weak- nesses to the classroom as hearing students. Adjustment to learning experiences is often comparable for both groups, as well. Students with a hearing loss, however, face the for- midable problems associated with being unable to communicate effectively with teachers and students who can hear. For more information on interacting with people who have a hearing loss, see this chapter’s Community Support for Lifelong Inclusion.
Teaching Communication Skills The approaches commonly used to teach com- munication skills to students with a hearing loss include auditory, oral, manual, and total communication. There is a long history of controversy regarding which approach is the most appropriate. However, no single method or combination of methods can meet the individual needs of all children with a hearing loss. Our purpose is not to enter into the controversy regarding these approaches but to present a brief description of each approach.
The Auditory Approach The auditory approach emphasizes the use of amplified sound and residual hearing to develop oral communication skills. The auditory channel is consid- ered the primary avenue for language development, regardless of the severity or type of hearing loss. The basic principles of the auditory-verbal approach are to:
1. Promote early diagnosis of hearing loss in newborns, infants, toddlers, and young children, followed by immediate audiologic management and auditory-verbal therapy;
2. Recommend immediate assessment and use of appropriate, state-of-the-art hearing technology to obtain maximum benefits of auditory stimulation;
3. Guide and coach parents to help their child use hearing as the primary sensory modal- ity in developing spoken language without the use of sign language or emphasis on lip-reading;
4. Guide and coach parents to become the primary facilitators of their child’s listening and spoken language development through active, consistent participation in indi- vidualized auditory-verbal therapy;
5. Guide and coach parents to create environments that support listening for the acquisi- tion of spoken language throughout the child’s daily activities;
6. Guide and coach parents to help their child integrate listening and spoken language into all aspects of the child’s life;
7. Guide and coach parents to use natural developmental patterns of audition, speech, language, cognition, and communication;
8. Guide and coach parents to help their child self-monitor spoken language through listening;
9. Administer ongoing formal and informal diagnostic assessments to develop individu- alized auditory-verbal treatment plans, to monitor progress, and to evaluate the effec- tiveness of the plans for the child and family; and
10. Promote education in regular schools with peers who have typical hearing and with appro- priate services from early childhood onward. (Alexander Graham Bell Academy, 2012)
The auditory approach uses a variety of electroacoustic devices to enhance residual hearing, such as binaural hearing aids, acoustically tuned earmolds, and FM units. FM units employ a behind-the-ear hearing aid connected to a high-powered frequency-modulated radio-frequency (FM-RF) system. These units use a one-way wireless system on radio frequency bands. The student wears the receiver unit (about the size of a deck of cards), and the teacher wears a wireless microphone-transmitter-antenna unit. One advantage of using an FM-RF system is that the teacher can be connected to several students at a time.
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
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Xeeb
CASE STUDY ON EMBRACING DIVERSITY
Xeeb Chang is an 8-year-old boy at Jefferson Elementary School who uses hearing aids to amplify sound due to a moderate hearing loss. He is from a Hmong family that emigrated from Laos to the United States 25 years ago. Both of his parents are hearing.
Xeeb’s teacher, Mr. Homem, wanted to develop a close working relation- ship with each of the families of his students. He was particularly eager to learn more about Xeeb and his fam- ily so that he could create a success- ful inclusive environment for Xeeb. Mr. Homem invited Xeeb’s parents to meet him at a local ice cream parlor to get to know each other and to discuss strategies to support Xeeb’s success. Xeeb’s parents shared some interest- ing details with Mr. Homem about their understanding of Xeeb’s hearing loss and their rights as partners in the edu- cation process. He learned that Xeeb’s parents noticed that Xeeb was not re- sponding to sounds in the same way his siblings did, but they were reluctant to seek medical assessment. They both confirmed that the elders in their com- munity were not supportive of medical interventions, but they eventually did bring Xeeb to the doctor for a hearing screening. Upon learning about their son’s hearing loss, they felt despair and great apprehension. They shared that they accepted Xeeb unconditionally,
yet they felt his hearing loss would cre- ate a barrier to learning and therefore they had lower expectations for him than his peers. They added that they have a strong value of education and its role in improving the lives of their children.
The Changs stated that they believe that parents must play a role in their children’s learning, but they did not have a clear understanding of the gen- eral education system and had an even weaker understanding of the special education process. Mr. Homem invited the Changs to take an active role in all school and class activities and shared that their involvement would be ben- eficial for everyone.
Mr. Homem asked the Changs about what Xeeb enjoyed doing at home and what his study habits were. They reported that he loves to play video games, basketball, and is particularly fond of all things Star Wars. He is not an avid reader, but enjoys doing math and
spelling work. They shared that their children, Xeeb and two older siblings, do homework at the kitchen table after dinner.
Noticing that Xeeb often leaves his hearing aids at home, Mr. Homem asked the Changs how they felt about their son’s use of an amplification sys- tem. The Changs assured Mr. Homem that they had no reservations about Xeeb using hearing aids but noted that Xeeb strongly dislikes wearing them. They said that they do not require him to wear the aids at home.
Mr. Homem thanked the Changs for their time and for sharing their son’s and their history with him. He left the meeting feeling like he had a better un- derstanding of Xeeb and his family.
Application Questions
1. What are some strategies Mr. Homem could use to help the Changs better understand the general and special education system at Jefferson Elementary School?
2. How can Mr. Homem capitalize on Xeeb’s interests in the classroom?
3. It is important to Mr. Homem that the Changs support his high expecta- tions of Xeeb’s success. What are some strategies he could use to help build a stronger understanding of their son’s ability?
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The Oral Approach The oral approach to teaching communication skills also relies on the use of amplified sound and residual hearing to develop oral language. This approach emphasizes the need for people with a hearing loss to function in the hearing world. Indi- viduals are encouraged to speak and be spoken to. In addition to electroacoustic amplifica- tion, teachers may employ speech-reading, reading and writing, and moto-kinesthetic speech training (feeling an individual’s face and reproducing breath and voice patterns). Speech-reading is the process of understanding another person’s speech by watching lip movement and facial and body gestures. This skill is difficult to master, especially for peo- ple who have been deaf since an early age and, thus, never acquired speech. Problems with speech-reading include the fact that many sounds are not distinguishable on the lips; readers must attend carefully to every word spoken, a difficult task for preschool and primary-age children. Additionally, speech-readers must be able to see the speaker’s mouth at all times.
Speech-reading The process of understanding another person’s speech by watching lip movement and facial and body gestures.
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If a severe or profound hearing loss automatically made an individual neurologically and functionally “different” from people with normal hearing, then the oral approach may not be tenable. However, outcome studies show that individuals who have been taught through the active use of amplified residual hearing since early childhood are indeed in- dependent, speaking, and contributing members of mainstream society.
The Manual Approach The manual approach to teaching communication skills stresses the use of signs in teaching children who are deaf to communicate. The use of signs is based on the premise that many such children are unable to develop oral language; consequently, they must have some other means of communication. Manual communication systems are divided into two main categories: sign languages and sign systems.
Sign languages are systematic and complex combinations of hand movements that communicate whole words and complete thoughts rather than the individual letters of the alphabet. One of the most common sign languages is the American Sign Language (ASL) with a vocabulary of more than 6,000 signs. Examples of ASL signs are shown in Figure 13.5.
ASL is currently the most widely used sign language among many adults who are deaf, because it is easy to master and has historically been the preferred mode of communication. It is a language, but it is not English. Its signs represent concepts rather than single words. The use of ASL in a school setting has been strongly recommended by some advocates for people who are deaf because it is considered their natural language (National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2015d).
Sign systems differ from sign languages in that they attempt to create visual equiva- lents of oral language through manual gestures. With finger spelling, a form of manual communication that incorporates all 26 letters of the English alphabet, each letter is signed independently on one hand to form words. It is common to see a person who is deaf using finger spelling when there is no ASL sign for a word. The four sign systems used in the United States are Seeing Essential English, Signing Exact English, Linguistics of Visual English, and Signed English.
There is a continuing debate regarding the use of ASL and signing English systems in providing academic instruction to students who are deaf. Should ASL or English be the primary language for instruction? Those advocating a bicultural–bilingual approach
Sign languages Complex combinations of hand movements that communicate whole words and complete thoughts rather than the individual letters of the alphabet.
American Sign Language (ASL) A type of sign language commonly used by people with hearing impairments. ASL signs represent concepts rather than single words.
Sign systems Differing from sign languages, sign systems create visual equivalents of oral language through manual gestures. For example, finger spell- ing uses a separate sign for each letter of the English alphabet.
Bicultural–bilingual approach Instructional approach advocating ASL as the primary language and English as the second language for students who are deaf.
Figure 13.5 Examples of “Faint” Expressed in American Sign Language Example Usage of Faint: My mother
fainted from the ammonia fumes.
Alabama, Hawaii
Massachusetts
Arkansas, Florida, Maine, Kentucky, Louisiana, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina
California, Illinois, Utah
Colorado, Texas (1 of 2) Michigan, Ohio
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believe that ASL should be the primary language and English the second language. As the primary language, ASL would then serve as the foundation for the learning of English. The rationale for ASL as the primary language emerges from the values held dear by the deaf community: Children who are deaf must learn academic content in the language of their culture, their natural language. The primary language for children who are deaf is visual, not verbal. Children who are deaf should be considered bilingual students, not students with disabilities. As is true in bilingual education programs for students with differing language backgrounds, there is also the debate about whether ASL should be taught first and then English, or whether both should be taught simultaneously. One side emphasizes the importance of the child’s first acquiring the natural language (ASL). The other stresses the need to expose the child to both ASL and English simultaneously and as early as pos- sible. There is little research to support either position.
Total Communication Total communication has roots traceable to the 16th century. Over the past four centuries, many professionals advocated for an instructional system that employed every method possible to teach communication skills: oral, auditory, man- ual, and written. This approach was known as the combined system or simultaneous method. The methodology of the early combined system was imprecise; essentially, any recognized approach to teaching communication was used as long as it included a manual component. The concept of total communication differs from the older combined system in that it is used not only when the oral method fails or when critical learning periods have long since passed, but also in a much broader sense—as a total communication philosophy, not a system.
The philosophy of total communication holds that the simultaneous presentation of signs and speech will enhance each person’s opportunity to understand and use both systems more effectively.
Total communication programs use residual hearing, amplification, speech-reading, speech training, reading, and writing in combination with manual systems. A method that may be used as an aid to total communication but is not a necessary component of the approach is cued speech. Cued speech facilitates the development of oral communication by combining eight different hand signals in four different locations near the person’s chin. These hand signals provide additional information about sounds not identifiable by speech-reading. The result is that an individual has access to all sounds in the English language through either the lips or the hands.
Assistive Technology Educational and leisure opportunities for people with a hear- ing loss have been greatly expanded through technological advances such as closed-caption television, computers, and the Internet. In this section, we examine 21st-century technology for people with a hearing loss.
Closed-Captioning Closed-caption television translates dialogue from a television pro- gram into printed words (captions or subtitles). These captions are then converted into elec- tronic codes that can be inserted into the television picture on sets specially adapted with decoding devices. The process is called the line-21 system because the caption is inserted into blank line 21 of the picture.
In its first year of operation in 1958, national closed-caption programming was avail- able about 30 hours a week. By 1987, more than 200 hours a week of national programming were captioned in a wide range of topics, from news and information to entertainment and commercials. By 1993, all major broadcast networks were captioning 100 percent of their prime-time broadcasts, national news, and children’s programming. With the passage of the Television Decoder Circuitry Act of 1993, the numbers of viewers watching closed- caption television expanded even more dramatically. This act required that all television sets sold in the United States that measure 13 inches or larger be equipped with a decoder that allows captions to be placed anywhere on the television screen. (This prevents captions from interfering with on-screen titles or other information displayed on the TV broadcast.) In 1997, the U.S. Congress passed the Telecommunications Act, which required virtually all new television programming to be captioned by January 2006. The clear intent of the law was to expand access to television for millions of people who are deaf.
Total communication A communication approach that uses elements from manual, oral, and any other techniques available to facilitate understanding.
Cued speech Cued speech facilitates the devel- opment of oral communication by combining eight hand signals in four different locations near the person’s chin.
Closed-caption television TV broadcasts that provide trans- lated dialogue in the form of subti- tles. Also called the “line-21” system because the caption is inserted into blank line 21 of the picture.
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
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Computers, Smartphones, Tablets, and the Internet Personal computers, electronic tablets, and smartphones add an exciting dimension to information access for people with a hearing loss. These widely used devices place people with a hearing impairment in an interac- tive setting using Internet applications (“apps”) and computer software. Learning can be in- dividualized so that students can gain independence by working at their own pace and level.
Various apps are now available for instructional support across academic subject areas from reading and writing to learning basic sign language. Software is available that will display a person’s speech in visual form on the screen to assist in the development of ar- ticulation skills. Another innovative computer system is called C-Print, developed by the National Technical Institute for the Deaf. Using a laptop computer equipped with a com- puter shorthand system and commercially available software packages, C-Print provides real-time translations of the spoken word. C-Print provides a major service to students with a hearing loss as they attend college classes or oral lectures; they typically find note taking an extremely difficult activity, even when an oral interpreter is available (National Technical Institute for the Deaf, 2006).
Through e-mail, texting, interactive chat rooms, smartphones, and the infinite number of websites, the Internet offers people with a hearing loss access to all kinds of visual in- formation through the quickest and most convenient means possible. Harris Communica- tions and the American Sign Language Browser at Michigan State University are just two examples of sites designed specifically for people who are deaf.
Telecommunication Devices A major advance in communication technology for people with a hearing loss is the telecommunication device (TDD). In 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act renamed these devices text telephones (TTs). TTs send, receive, and print messages through thousands of stations across the United States. People with a hearing loss can now dial an 800 number to set up conference calls, make appointments, or order mer- chandise or fast food. Anyone who wants to speak with a person using a TT can do so through the use of a standard telephone.
The teletypewriter (TTY) and printer system is another effective use of technology for people who are deaf. It allows them to communicate by phone via a typewriter that converts typed letters into electric signals through a modem. These signals are sent through the
Text telephones (TTs) Telephones that send, receive, and print messages through thousands of stations across the United States.
Experiences of People with Sensory Impairments In 2010, four Norwegian researchers (Tollefsen, Dale, Berg, & Nordby, 2011) conducted a survey of Norwegian citi- zens with disabilities, including those with sensory impairments, to better understand their use of social media. The researchers asked specifically about the use of Facebook, Twitter, and Skype, but respondents were free to talk about other forms of social me- dia in their lives. A few highlights of re- sponses from people with hearing and vision loss follow:
I am severely hard of hearing (hear- ing aid user) and visually impaired. Facebook has become an extremely important arena for me to keep up- dated. The social aspects of visual or
hearing impairments do not matter here. I use what I have learned on Facebook when I later meet people face to face, and this has made it much easier for me to follow and understand the context of conver- sations. It has also become much easier to keep in touch with people I otherwise would not have had the resources to keep in contact with. For me, Facebook provides the op- portunity for a more active social life out in “real life.”
The previous quote … suggests that social media actually provide a signifi- cant added value in relation to social participation in “real life.” A woman who is blind says:
I use whatever I have found on Face- book when I meet people. For ex- ample, others can see that someone is pregnant and ask how it’s going. I can’t see this, but I have often found out about it on Facebook. Then I can ask!
Questions for Reflection Why do you think many people with sensory impairments in this survey view social media as a “valued-added” part of their lives? What are the chal- lenges for people with sensory impair- ments in accessing social media sites?
SOURCE: Tollefsen, M., Dale, Ø, Berg, M, & Nordby, R. (2011). Connected!: Disabled and use of social media. Retrieved March 12, 2012, from http://medialt.no/news/en-US /connected-disabled-and-use-of-social-media/737.aspx.
LEARNING THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA
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Motor Skill Development for Young Children with Vision Loss
Children with sight develop motor skills by watching how other people move and by engaging in physical play. Children who are blind or have limited sight do not share the same experiences as their sighted peers. As a result, they have significant delays in their motor skill development and physical fitness levels. These delays can be minimized by creating opportunities for physical play, especially play that involves ex- ploring the environment around them. Adapted physical education programs can improve fitness levels, strengthen motor skills, bolster self-confidence with regard to independent mobility, and establish social connections that lead to friendships. The following is a list of strategies for students with vi- sual impairments in physical education programs:
● Allow students to position themselves to maximize their residual vision.
● Make sure play areas are well lit.
● Encourage students with visual im- pairment to explore the entire physi- cal education area to become familiar with it.
● Keep instructional areas free from clutter and keep students with visual
impairment up-to-date on changes in the environment.
● Modify activities and equipment when necessary. Use audible bells, guide ropes for running, larger equip- ment when available, and employ the buddy system.
● Provide arm support if needed for jumping activities.
● Use touch to demonstrate body movements.
● Use good verbal descriptions when sharing a new activity or movement pattern.
● Resist the urge to overprotect stu- dents who have visual impairments.
● Teach skills from least difficult to most difficult (catching a ball from a short
distance first, then extend to a greater distance).
● Use the student’s name before they are expected to engage.
● Use bells on the “it” person during tag games.
● Consider limiting the playing space when appropriate.
Adapting games and activities in- creases the opportunity for fun, skill development, and self-confidence. Learning a new sport or recreational activity can improve a person’s gen- eral sense of well-being and com- petence as well as lead to improved fitness levels.
Questions for Reflection 1. What are some of ways in which chil- dren with a vision loss are able to par- ticipate in physical education?
2. How can educators, parents, and caregivers assure that children with a vision loss have the opportunity to de- velop motor skills?
SOURCE: Letcher, K. (2015). Adapted Physical Education for the Blind and Visually Impaired. Overbrook School for the Blind. Retrieved March 21, 2015, from www.s118134197 .onlinehome.us/page.php?ITEM=39.
REFLECT ON THIS
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phone lines and are then translated into typed messages and printed on a typewriter con- nected to a phone on the other end. Computer software is now available that can turn a personal computer into a TTY.
13-6b Intervention Strategies for Youth Who Are Blind or Have Low Vision A popular misconception regarding the perceptual abilities of people with vision loss is that because of their diminished sight, they develop greater capacity in other sensory areas. For example, people who are blind are supposedly able to hear or smell some things that people with normal vision cannot perceive. This notion has never been empirically validated.
Education Strategies When determining the appropriate educational strategies for a student with a vision loss, an IEP team must also focus on how a student utilizes any remaining vision (visual efficiency) in conjunction with other senses. The Visual Efficiency Scale (see Barraga & Erin, 2002) assesses the overall visual functioning of individuals to
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 4 Assessment
Standard 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
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determine how they use sight to acquire information. As suggested by Bishop (2005), if an individual has remaining vision, it is important that professionals and parents promote its use.
A functional approach to determining appropriate educational strategies for individuals with a vision loss focuses on visual capacity, attention, and processing. Visual capacity in- cludes both acuity and field of vision; it also encompasses the response of the individual to visual information. The assessment of visual attention involves observing the individual’s sensitivity to visual stimuli (alertness), ability to use vision to select information from a variety of sources, attention to a visual stimulus, and ability to process visual informa- tion. Visual-processing assessment determines which, if any, of the components of normal visual functioning are impaired.
The educational needs of students with vision loss are comparable to those of their sighted counterparts. In addition, many instructional methods currently used with students who are sighted are appropriate for students with vision loss. However, edu- cators must be aware that certain content areas that are generally unnecessary for sighted students are essential to the success, in a classroom, of students with vision loss. These areas include mobility and orientation training as well as acquisition of daily living skills.
The ability to move safely, efficiently, and in- dependently through the environment enhances an individual’s opportunities to learn more about the world and, thus, be less dependent on others for survival. Lack of mobility restricts individuals with vision loss in nearly every aspect of educa- tional life. Such students may be unable to orient themselves to physical structures in the classroom (desks, chairs, and aisles), hallways, rest rooms, library, and cafeteria. Whereas people with sight can automatically establish a relative position in space, individuals with vision loss must be taught some means of compensating for a lack of visual input. This may be accomplished in a number of ways. It is important that students with vision loss not only learn the physical structure of their school, but also develop specific techniques to orient them- selves to unfamiliar surroundings.
These orientation techniques involve using the other senses. For example, the senses of touch and hearing can help students identify cues that des- ignate where the bathroom is in the school. Although it is not true that people who are blind have superior hearing abilities, they may learn to use their hearing more effectively by focusing on subtle auditory cues that often go unnoticed. The efficient use of hearing, in conjunction with the other senses (including any remaining vision), is the key to inde- pendent travel for people with vision loss.
Independent travel with a sighted companion, but without the use of a cane, guide dog, or electronic device, is the most common form of travel for young school-age children. The major challenges for children with low vision in moving independently and safely through their environment include:
● Knowing where landmarks are throughout the school setting; ● Being familiar with the layout of classrooms and common areas, such as the library,
gym, and cafeteria; ● Knowing where exits, rest rooms, the main office, and other relevant school and
classroom areas are located; and ● Understanding the school’s emergency procedures, such as fire, tornado, or earth-
quake drills. (Cox & Dykes, 2001)
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
Photo 13.5 Guide dogs and electronic mobility devices (such as this global positioning device) assist people who are blind in moving safely, efficiently, and independently through their environment.
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Other challenges for students with low vision include adapting to changes in lighting, ne- gotiating stairs and curbs, and walking in bad weather.
With the increasing emphasis on instructing young children in orientation at an earlier age, use of the long cane (Kiddie Cane) for young children has become more common. As these children grow older, they may be instructed in the use of a Mowat sensor. The Mowat sensor, approximately the size of a flashlight, is a handheld ultrasound travel aid that uses high-frequency sound to detect objects. Vibration frequency increases as objects become closer; the sensor vibrates at different rates to warn of obstacles in front of the individual. The device ignores everything but the closest object within the beam.
Guide dogs or electronic mobility devices may be appropriate for adolescents or adults, because the need to travel independently increases significantly with age. A variety of electronic mobility devices are currently being used for everything from enhancing hearing efficiency to detecting obstacles.
The Laser Cane converts infrared light into sound as light beams strike objects in the path of the person who is blind. It uses a range-finding technique with a semiconductor laser and a position-sensitive device (PSD). Proximity to an obstacle is warned by vibra- tion at different levels of frequency.
The SonicGuide or Sonic Pathfinder, worn on the head, emits ultrasound and converts reflections from objects into audible noise in such a way that individuals can learn about the structure of objects. For example, loudness indicates size: The louder the noise, the larger the object. To use the SonicGuide effectively, people with low vision should have mobility skills. It is designed for outdoor use in conjunction with a cane, a guide dog, or residual vision.
The acquisition of daily living skills is another content area important to success in the classroom and to overall independence. Most people take for granted many routine events of the day, such as eating, dressing, bathing, and toileting. People with sight learn very early in life the tasks associated with perceptual-motor development, includ- ing grasping, lifting, balancing, pouring, and manipulating objects. These daily living tasks become more complex during the school years as children learn personal hygiene, grooming, and social etiquette. Eventually, people with sight acquire many complex daily living skills that later contribute to their independence as adults. Money management, grocery shopping, doing laundry, cooking, cleaning, making minor household repairs, sewing, mowing the lawn, and gardening are all daily tasks associated with adult life and are learned from experiences that are not usually a part of an individual’s formal educational program.
For children with vision loss, however, routine daily living skills are not easily learned through everyday experiences. These children must be encouraged and supported as they develop life skills; they must not be overprotected from everyday challenges and risks by family and friends.
Academic Content Mobility training and daily living skills are components of an educational program that must also include an academic curriculum.
Particular emphasis must be placed on developing receptive and expressive language skills. Students with vision loss must learn to listen in order to understand the auditory world more clearly. Finely tuned receptive skills contribute to the development of expres- sive language, which allows these students to describe their perceptions of the world orally. Some research suggests the use of a language experience approach (LEA) as a means to develop language skills and prepare students for reading (Dorr, 2006; Koenig & Holbrook, 2005). The LEA involves several steps, as described in Figure 13.6.
Oral expression can be expanded to include handwriting as a means of communica- tion. The acquisition of social and instructional language skills opens the door to many areas, including reading and mathematics. Reading can greatly expand the knowledge base for children with vision loss. For people who are partially sighted, various optical aids are available: video systems that magnify print, handheld magnifiers, magnifiers attached to eyeglasses, and other telescopic aids. Another means to facilitate reading for partially sighted students is the use of large-print books, which are generally available
Mowat sensor A handheld ultrasound travel aid that uses high-frequency sound to detect objects.
Laser Cane A mobility device for people who are blind. It converts infrared light into sound as light beams strike objects.
SonicGuide An electronic mobility device for the blind, which is worn on the head, emits ultrasound, and converts reflections of objects into audible noise.
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13 – 6 I N T E R V E N T I O N S A N D T R E AT M E N T S F O R S E N S O R Y D I S A B I L I T I E S F R O M E A R LY C H I L D H O O D T H R O U G H A D U LT H O O D 343
in several print sizes through the American Printing House for the Blind and the Library of Congress. Other factors that must be considered in teaching reading to students who are partially sighted include adequate illumination and the reduction of glare. Advance organizers prepare students by previewing the instructional approach and materials to be used in a lesson. These organizers essentially identify the topics or tasks to be learned, give the student an organizational framework, indicate the concepts to be introduced, list new vocabulary, and state the intended outcomes for students.
Abstract mathematical concepts may be difficult for students who are blind. These students will probably require additional practice in learning to master symbols, number facts, and higher-level calculations. As concepts become more complex, additional aids may be necessary to facilitate learning. Specially designed talking microcomputers, calculators, rulers, and compasses have been developed to assist students in this area.
Figure 13.6 General Steps in the Language Experience Approach
1. Arrange for and carry out a special event or activity for the child (or a group of children), such as a visit to the town’s post office or a nearby farm. A naturally occurring experience such as a classmate’s birthday or a school assembly may also be used, but it is important to continue to expand the child’s experiences through unique and special activities (such as attending a circus or riding in a rowboat). Use a multisensory approach and active learning to immerse the child fully in the experience.
2. After the activity, have the child tell a story about what happened. If he or she has trouble getting started, use some brief prompts (“What happened first?”). As the child tells the story, write it down word for word with a braillewriter. Generally, the stories are relatively short at this stage in the student’s literacy development. Three important points need to be emphasized:
● Use a braillewriter (rather than a computer) to write the story so that the child knows that what he or she is saying is being recorded through writing. Have the child follow along with his or her finger just behind the embossing head, if appropriate.
● Write the story in braille as the child is speaking. It is not instructionally effective to write it in print and later transcribe it into braille. Writing immediately in braille makes the child aware of the natural relationship between spoken and written words.
● Write down the child’s words exactly as he or she says them. Do not fix grammatical er- rors or attempt to control the vocabulary in any way. One of the goals of using this ap- proach is to build the child’s trust. If the child thinks that his or her story needs to be “fixed,” then this feeling of trust is interrupted, and the child may be less willing to share his or her experiences and stories in the future.
3. Reread the story immediately with the child, using the shared reading strategy just discussed. The child will remember much of the story and will be able to read along, saying many of the words. Do not stop or pause during this step to have the child sound out or analyze words. The immediate rereading should be a holistic experience recounting the child’s story.
4. Continue rereading the story through shared reading on subsequent days. Soon, the child will independently know more of the words and may even begin to recognize some of the words out of context.
5. Arrange contextually appropriate reading-strategy lessons based on the story, especially as the child approaches kindergarten. For example, if the story has several p words in it, talk about the initial /p/ sound. The child can scan to find the p words in the story and make a list, perhaps in a shared writing experience, of other p words. A comprehension activity may involve writing a new ending of the story by changing one feature (e.g., “How would your story have ended if … ?”). Related art activities or binding the story into a book may also be fun and motivating for the child.
SOURCE: Koenig, A. J., & Holbrook, M. C. (Eds.). (2005). Literacy skills. In Foundations of education: Volume II, Instructional strategies for teaching children and youths with visual impairments, 2nd ed. (pp. 276–277). New York: AFB Press.
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Communication Media For students who are partially sighted, their limited vi- sion remains a means of obtaining information. The use of optical aids in conjunction with auditory and tactile stimuli provides these individuals with an integrated sensory ap- proach to learning. However, this approach is not possible for students who are blind. Because they do not have access to visual stimuli, they may have to compensate through the use of tactile and auditory media. Through these media, children who are blind de- velop an understanding of themselves and of the world around them. One facet of this development process is the acquisition of language, and one facet of language acquisition is learning to read.
For students who are blind, the tactile sense represents entry into the symbolic world of reading. The most widely used tactile medium for teaching reading is the braille system.
This system, which originated with the work of Louis Braille in 1829, is a code that utilizes a six-dot cell to form 63 different alphabetical, numerical, and grammatical char- acters. To become proficient braille readers, people must learn 263 different configura- tions, including alphabet letters, punctuation marks, short-form words, and contractions. Braille is not a tactile reproduction of the standard English alphabet, but a separate code for reading and writing.
Braille is composed of from 1 to 6 raised dots depicted in a cell or space that contains room for two vertical rows of three dots each. On the left, the dots are numbered 1, 2, and 3 from top to bottom; on the right the dots are numbered 4, 5, and 6. This makes it easy to describe braille characters. For example, “a” is dot 1, “p” is dots 1, 2, 3, and 4, and “h” is dots 1, 2, and 5.
In braille any letter becomes a capital by putting dot 6 in front of it. For example, if “a” is dot 1, then “A” is dot 6 followed by dot 1, and if “p” is dots 1, 2, 3, and 4, then “P” is dot 6 followed by dots 1, 2, 3, and 4. This sure is easier than print, which requires different configurations for more than half of the capital letters. If “h” is dots 1, 2, and 5, what is
“H”? Research has shown that the fastest braille readers use two hands. Using two hands also seems to make it easier for beginning braille readers to stay on the line. Do you think this might have something to do with two points constituting a line as my geometry teacher used to tell us (Pester, 2012)?
Braille is used by about one of every ten students who are blind and is considered by many to be an efficient means for teaching reading and writing. The American Printing House for the Blind produces about 28 million pages in English braille each year (Pester, 2012). Critics of the system argue that most readers who use braille are much slower than those who read from print and that braille materials are bulky and tedious. It can be argued, however, that without braille, people who are blind would be much less indepen- dent. Some people who are unable to read braille (such as people with diabetes who have decreased tactile sensitivity) are more dependent on sight readers and recordings. Simple tasks—such as labeling cans, boxes, or cartons in a bathroom or kitchen—become nearly impossible to complete.
Braille writing is accomplished through the use of a slate and stylus. Using this proce- dure, a student writes a mirror image of the reading code, moving from right to left. The writing process may be facilitated by using a braillewriter, a hand-operated machine with six keys that correspond to each dot in the braille cell.
Innovations for braille readers that reduce some of the problems associated with the me- dium include the Mountbatten Brailler and the Braille ‘n Speak. The Mountbatten Brailler is electronic and, hence, easier to operate than a manual unit. The Mountbatten Brailler weighs about 15 pounds and can be hooked up to a computer keyboard attachment to input information.
The Braille ‘n Speak is a pocket-size battery-powered braille note taker with a keyboard for data entry with voice output. The device can translate braille into synthesized speech or print. Files may be printed in formatted text to a printer designed to enable users to input information through a braille keyboard. The Braille ‘n Speak has accessories for entering or reading text for a host computer, for reading computer disks, and for sending or receiving a fax.
Standard 4 Assessment
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
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In regard to educational programs for students who are blind, the U.S. Congress re- sponded to concerns that services for these students were not addressing their unique educational and learning needs, particularly their needs for instruction in reading, writ- ing, and composition. In IDEA, Congress mandated that schools make provision for instruction in braille and the use of braille unless the IEP team determines that such instruction and use are not appropriate to the needs of the student (U.S. Department of Education, 2014).
One tactile device that does not use the braille system is the Optacon scanner. This machine exposes printed material to a camera and then reproduces it on a fingerpad, us- ing a series of vibrating pins that are tactile reproductions of the printed ma- terial. Developed by J. C. Bliss, Optacons have been available commercially since 1971, and thousands are currently in use worldwide. Although the Optacon greatly expands access to the printed word, it has drawbacks as well. It requires tactile sensitivity, so reading remains a slow, la- borious process. Additionally, consider- able training is required for individuals to become skilled users. These drawbacks, along with the development of reading ma- chines, have resulted in the declining use and production of the Optacon scanner.
Many of the newer communication systems do not make use of the tactile sense because it is not functional for all people who are blind (many, including some elderly people, do not have tactile sensitivity). Such individuals must rely solely on the auditory sense to acquire information. Specialized auditory media for people who are blind are becoming increas- ingly available. One example is the reading machine, hailed as a major breakthrough in technology for people with a vision loss. Reading machines convert printed matter into synthetic speech at a rate of 1 to 2.5 pages per minute. They can also convert print to braille. The costs associated with reading machines have decreased substantially in the past few years; most can be purchased with computer accessories for about $1,000. Several advocacy organizations for those with blindness and many banks throughout the United States currently provide low-interest loans for people with vision loss so that they can purchase the device. The first commercial reading machines were invented by Ray Kurzweil in the 1970s, culminating in today’s L&H Kurzweil 1000 and 3000 Reading Systems. The Kurzweil 1000 makes any printed or electronic text easily accessible to people with low vi- sion or blindness. The Kurzweil 3000 provides struggling readers the opportunity to learn from the same content and curriculum materials as their peers by facilitating assigned readings, assisting in the learning of critical study skills, and independently completing writing projects and tests (Kurzweil Technologies, 2012).
Reading machines are now readily available and affordable for people with low vision through a number of companies worldwide. The most recent reading machine software and newly developed “apps” can be found in pocket-size devices, including smartphones and tablets (i.e., iPad.), in addition to desktop personal computers and laptops. E-readers, such as the Amazon Kindle and Nook, have the capability of increasing text size with one touch, thus significantly enhancing availability for people with low vision to all types and forms of text. Although printed text is not likely to go away anytime in the foresee- able future, the affordable e-readers and new tablet technologies are clearly changing the face of publishing. Such technologies can only mean good news for people with low vision or blindness. Other auditory aids that assist people who are blind include personal computers, smartphones, electronic tablets, calculators, watches, calendars and e-readers with voice output; digital recorders; and numerous other personal digital assistants (PDAs). For example, the Note Teller is a small, compact machine that can identify denominations of U.S. currency using a voice synthesizer that communicates in either English or Spanish.
Photo 13.6 The Braille ‘n Speak translates braille into synthesized speech and is so portable that it can be carried anywhere.
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Communication media that facilitate participation of people with vision loss in the com- munity include specialized library and newspaper services that offer books in large print, on cassette, and in braille. The New York Times, for example, publishes a weekly special edition with type three times the size of its regular type. The sale of large-print books has increased during the past ten years; many have also become available through the Internet or on computer disc (electronic books).
Responding to a human voice, devices known as personal digital assistants (PDAs) can look up a telephone number and make a phone call. Using a synthesized voice, some PDAs can read a newspaper delivered over telephone lines, balance a checkbook, turn home appliances on and off, and maintain a daily appointment book.
Closed-Circuit Television Closed-circuit television (CCTV) systems are another means to enlarge the print from books and other written documents. Initially explored in the 1950s, CCTV systems became more practical in the 1970s, and they are now in wider use than ever before. The components of the CCTV systems include a small television camera with variable zoom lens and focusing capacity, a TV monitor, and a sliding platform table for printed ma- terials. An individual sits in front of the television monitor to view printed material that can be enhanced up to 60 times its original size through the use of the TV camera and zoom lens. Some CCTVs are also available with split-screen capability to allow near and distant objects to be viewed together. These machines can also accept input directly from a computer as well as printed material.
More recently, some residential schools have advocated an open system of intervention. These programs are based on the philosophy that children who are blind should have every opportunity to gain the same experiences that would be available if they were growing up in their own communities. Both open and closed residential facilities exist today as alter- native intervention modes; they are no longer the primary social or educational systems available to people who are blind. Just like Darran in one of the chapter Snapshots, the vast majority of people who are blind or partially sighted now live at home, attend local public schools, and interact within the community. For more information about including people with vision loss in family, school, and community, see this chapter’s Community Support for Lifelong Inclusion on p. 348.
Educational programs for students with vision loss are based on the principle of flex- ible placement. Thus, a wide variety of services are available to these students, ranging from general education class placement, with little or no assistance from specialists, to separate residential schools. Between these two placements, the public schools generally offer several alternative classroom structures, including the use of consulting teachers, resource rooms, part-time special classes, or full-time special classes. Placement of stu- dents in one of these programs depends on the extent to which the loss of vision affects their overall educational achievement. Many students with vision loss are able to function successfully within inclusive educational programs if the learning environment is adapted to meet their needs.
Some organizations advocating for students who are blind strongly support the concept of flexible placements within a continuum ranging from general education classroom to residential school (American Foundation for the Blind, 2015). The American Foundation for the Blind recommends a full continuum of alternative placements, emphasizing that students who are visually impaired are most likely to succeed in educational systems where appropriate instruction and services are provided in a full array of program op- tions by qualified staff to address each student’s unique educational needs. Whether the student is to be included in the general education classroom or taught in a special class, a vision specialist must be available, either to support the general education classroom teacher or to provide direct instruction to the student. A vision specialist has received concentrated training in the education of students with vision loss. This specialist and the rest of the educational support team have knowledge of appropriate educational as- sessment techniques, specialized curriculum materials and teaching approaches, and the use of various communication media. Specialized instruction for students who have vision loss may include a major modification in curricula, including teaching concepts
Personal digital assistants (PDAs) Handheld computer device that can be programmed to perform multiple functions such as making a phone call, reading a newspaper, or maintaining a daily calendar or address book.
Closed-circuit television (CCTV) A system that includes a small TV camera with a zoom lens, which allows an individual with vision loss to view printed material enlarged up to 60 times its original size.
Standard 2 Learning Environments
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that children who are sighted learn incidentally (such as walking down the street, getting from one room to the next in the school building, getting meals in the cafeteria, and using public transportation).
Access to Health Care and Other Community Services The nature of health care services depends on the type and severity of the loss. For people who are par- tially sighted, use of an optical aid can vastly improve access to the visual world. Most of these aids take the form of corrective glasses or contact lenses, which are designed to mag- nify the image on the retina. Some aids magnify the retinal image within the eye, and others clarify the retinal image. Appropriate use of optical aids, in conjunction with regular medical examinations, not only helps correct existing visual problems but may also prevent further deterioration of existing vision.
Surgery, muscle exercises, and drug therapy have also played important roles in treat- ing people with vision loss. Interventions may range from complex laser surgical pro- cedures and corneal transplants to the process known as atropinization, in which the dominant eye use is strategically reduced to allow muscle control to develop in the less dominant eye.
Social services can begin with infant stimulation programs and counseling for the family. As children grow older, group counseling can help the family cope with their feelings about blindness and provide guidance in the area of human sexuality (limited vision may distort perception of the physical body). Counseling eventually extends into matters focusing on marriage, family, and adult relationships. For adults with vision loss, special guidance may be necessary in preparation for employment and independent living.
Mobility of people with vision loss can be enhanced in large cities by the use of auditory pedestrian signals known as audible traffic signals (ATS) at crosswalks. The walk and don’t walk signals are indicated by auditory cues, such as actual verbal mes- sages (e.g., “Please do not cross yet”), different bird chirps for each signal, or a Sonalert buzzer. ATS is somewhat controversial among people who are blind and professionals in the field. Those who do not support the use of ATS have two basic concerns: First, the devices promote negative public attitudes, indicating a presumption that such as- sistance is necessary for people who are blind to be mobile. Second, the devices may actually contribute to unsafe conditions because they mask traffic noise for people who are blind.
Restaurant menus, elevator floor buttons, and signs in buildings (such as rest rooms) can be produced in braille. Telephones, credit cards, personal checks, ATM cards, special mailing tubes, and panels for household appliances are also available in braille. Access to community services is greatly enhanced by devices that use synthesized speech for purchasing subway and rail tickets and for obtaining money from automatic teller machines.
Looking Toward a Bright Future In the United States, nearly 11 million people have an irreversible hearing loss, and 9 million people have vision loss that will require some type of specialized services and supports. For these individuals, life in the 21st century is very different than for the generations that came before them. New research on effective education, health care, and social services, as well as advances in new technologies, is enhancing life in school, family, and community every day. Major advances in computer programs are now readily available to assist school-age students with a hearing loss across a variety of academic subject areas, from reading and writing to learning basic sign language. The Internet has created a whole new world for those with a hearing loss as well as their hearing peers through social networking, interac- tive chat rooms, and an infinite number of websites.
Atropinization Treatment for cataracts that involves washing the eye with atropine, permanently dilating the pupil.
Standard 4 Assessment
L O O K I N G T O WA R D A B R I G H T F U T U R E
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People with Hearing and/or Vision Loss
COMMUNITY SUPPORT FOR LIFELONG INCLUSION
Early Childhood Years Tips for Families
● Orient your family members (children, cousins, and other extended family members) so they have a good under- standing about their supportive roles and how they can be understanding, helpful, and encouraging.
● Keep informed about organizations that can provide support to your child with a vision or hearing loss.
● Get in touch with your local health, so- cial services, and education agencies about infant, toddler, and preschool programs for your child.
● Become familiar with the individual- ized family service plan (IFSP) and how it can serve as a planning tool to sup- port the inclusion of your child in early intervention programs.
● Collaborate with professionals to determine what modes of commu- nication (oral, manual, and/or total communication) will be most effective in developing early language skills in your child with a hearing loss.
● Provide appropriate and multiple sources of input for your child with a vision or hearing loss.
● Help your child with a vision loss to become oriented to the environment
by removing all unnecessary obstacles around the home (e.g., shoes left on the floor, partially opened doors, a vacuum cleaner left out).
Tips for Preschool Teachers
● Focus on developing expressive and receptive communication in the class- room as early as possible in your child with a hearing loss.
● Help classmates interact with children with a hearing or vision loss in appro- priate ways. Parents and other special- ists can give you helpful suggestions.
● If a child with a hearing loss doesn’t re- spond to sound, have the hearing chil- dren learn to stand in the line of sight.
● Work closely with parents so that early communication and skill development for a young child with a hearing loss are consistent across school and home environments.
● Become very familiar with acousti- cal devices (e.g., hearing aids) that a young child with a hearing loss may use. Make sure that these devices are worn properly and that they work in the classroom environment.
● Instruction in special mobility tech- niques should begin as early as pos- sible with a young child who has vision loss.
Tips for Preschool Personnel
● Support the inclusion of young chil- dren with a hearing or vision loss in your classrooms and programs.
● Support teachers, staff, and volunteers as they attempt to create successful experiences for young children with a hearing or vision loss in the preschool setting.
● Collaborate with families to keep them informed and active members of the school community.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Collaborate with the family of a young child with a hearing or vision loss to seek opportunities for interactions with peers in neighborhood play settings.
● Focus on the capabilities of young children with a hearing or vision loss, rather than on the disabilities. Under- stand how children with a hearing loss communicate: Orally? Manually? Or both? If a child uses sign language, take the time to learn fundamental signs that will enhance your commu- nication with him or her.
● Help children with a vision loss to develop a sense of touch and to use hearing to acquire information. Young children may also need assistance in
For people with vision loss, print-to-speech reading machines, such as the Kurzweil 3000, have become very small, inexpensive, palm-sized devices that can read books, printed documents, and other real-world texts such as signs and displays. GPS technology has made available user-friendly navigation devices that assist people in getting around; these devices are particularly helpful for those with a vision loss who need to avoid physical obstacles in their path and move easily through their environment (Kurzweil Technolo- gies, 2012). Braille readers can now read their books on the Internet thanks to a historic technological breakthrough by the Library of Congress called Web-Braille. Readers now have access to more than 3,000 electronic braille books recently placed on the Internet. Many hundreds of new titles are added each year. As a result of new computer technology, braille readers may now access Web-Braille digital braille book files with a computer and a refreshable braille display (electronic device that raises or lowers an array of pins to create a line of braille characters) or a braille embosser (Library of Congress, 2012). It is indeed a changing world for those with sensory disability—a world that holds the promise of a bright future.
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learning to smile and make eye contact with others.
● Help children in the classroom who have sight interact with a child with vision loss by teaching them to speak directly in a normal tone of voice.
● Become very familiar with both tactile (e.g., braille) and auditory aids (e.g., personal readers) that young children may use to acquire information.
Elementary Years Tips for Families
● Learn about your rights as parents of a child with a hearing or vision loss. Ac- tively collaborate with professionals in the development of your child’s in- dividualized education program (IEP). Through active participation, establish goals on the IEP that will focus on your child’s unique and particular needs.
● Participate in as many school functions for parents as possible (e.g., PTA, par- ent advisory groups, volunteering) to connect your family to the school.
● Seek information on in-school and ex- tracurricular activities available that will enhance opportunities for your child to interact with school peers.
● Keep the school informed about the medical needs of your child with a hearing loss. If he or she needs or uses acoustical devices to enhance hearing capability, help school personnel un- derstand how these devices work.
● If your child with a vision loss needs or uses specialized mobility devices to enhance access to the environment, help school personnel understand how these devices work.
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● Outline schoolwork (e.g., the sched- ule for the day) on paper or the black- board so a student with a hearing loss can see it.
● Remember that students with hearing loss don’t always know how words fit together to make understandable sentences. Help students develop skills by always writing in complete sentences.
● Have students with a hearing loss sit where they can see the rest of the class as easily as possible. Choose a buddy to sit nearby to help a student with a hearing loss stay aware of what is hap- pening within the classroom.
● Don’t be surprised to see gaps in learn- ing. Demonstrations of disappoint- ment or shock will make students feel at fault.
● Be sure to help students with a hearing or vision loss know what is going on at all times (e.g., pass on announcements made over the intercom).
● Have scripts (or outlines of scripts) for movies and videotapes used in class. Let a student with a hearing loss read the script for the movie.
● When working with an interpreter, re- member to:
● Introduce the interpreter to the class at the beginning of the year, and ex- plain his or her role.
● Always speak directly to the stu- dent, not to the interpreter.
● Pause when necessary to allow the interpreter to catch up, because he or she may often be a few words behind.
● Face the class when speaking. (When using a blackboard, write on the board first, then face the class to speak.)
● Include students who are deaf in class activities, and encourage these students to participate in answering questions.
● Introduce the vision specialist to the class. A professional trained in the education of students with vision loss can serve as an effective consultant in several areas (e.g., mobility train- ing, use of special equipment, com- munication media, and instructional strategies).
● Encourage peer support, an effective tool for learning, in the classroom set- ting. Peer buddy systems can be estab- lished in the school to help children with initial mobility needs and/or to provide any tutoring that would help them succeed in the general education classroom.
Tips for School Personnel
● Integrate school resources as well as children. Wherever possible, help general education classroom teach- ers access the human and material re- sources necessary to meet the needs of students with a hearing or vision loss. For example:
● Keep in close contact with the audiologist, and seek advice on the student’s hearing and the acoustic devices being used.
● The special education teacher trained in hearing loss is necessary both as a teacher of students with a hearing loss and as a consultant to general educators. Activities can range from working on the develop- ment of effective communication skills to dealing with behavioral dif- ficulties. General education teachers may even decide to work with the special education teacher on learn- ing sign language, if appropriate.
● Work with speech and language specialists. Many students with a hearing loss will need help with speech acquisition and application in the school setting.
● A vision specialist trained in the education of students with vision loss can serve as an effective con- sultant to you and the children in several areas (e.g., mobility training, use of special equipment, commu- nication media, and instructional strategies).
● Students with a vision loss often have associated medical problems. An ophthalmologist is helpful for helping teachers understand any re- lated medical needs that can affect a child’s educational experience.
● Students with sensory disabili- ties often lag in motor develop- ment. Create opportunities with an adapted physical educator for physical play that can build motor skills, balance, social connections, and self-confidence.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Help families with a child with a hear- ing or vision loss to be an integral
L O O K I N G T O WA R D A B R I G H T F U T U R E
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part of neighborhood and friendship networks. Seek ways to include the family and the child in neighborhood activities (e.g., outings, barbecues, outdoor yard and street cleanups, crime watches).
Secondary and Transition Years Tips for Families
● Become familiar with adult services systems (e.g., rehabilitation, Social Security, health care) while your son or daughter is still in high school. Understand the type of vocational or employment training needed prior to graduation.
● Create opportunities outside of school for your son or daughter to participate in activities with same-age hearing peers.
● Allow teens and young adults oppor- tunities for independence that balance risk and risk management.
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● Collaborate with specialists in hearing or vision loss and other school person- nel to help students adapt to subject matter in your classroom (e.g., science, math, physical education).
● Become aware of the needs of stu- dents with a hearing or vision loss in your classroom and with the resources available for them. Facilitate student
learning by establishing peer support systems (e.g., note takers) to help stu- dents with a hearing loss be successful.
● Use diagrams, graphs, and visual rep- resentations whenever possible when presenting new concepts to a student with a hearing loss.
● Help students with a hearing or vision loss become involved in extracurricu- lar high school activities. If you are the faculty sponsor of a club or organiza- tion, explore whether students are interested and how they could get involved.
● Maintain positive and ongoing contact with the family.
Tips for School Personnel
● Encourage parents of high school–age students with a hearing or vision loss to participate in school activities (such as committees and PTA).
● Parents will be more active when school personnel have general and positive contact with the family.
Tips for Neighbors, Friends, and Potential Employers
● Collaborate with family and school personnel to create opportunities for students with a hearing or vision loss to participate in community activities as much as possible with peers.
● As a potential employer for people with a hearing or vision loss, work with the high school and vocational
rehabilitation counselors to locate and establish employment training sites.
Adult Years Tips for Families
● Become aware of the supports and ser- vices available for your son or daughter in the local community in which they will live as adults. What formal sup- ports are available in the community through government-funded pro- grams or advocacy organizations for people with a hearing loss?
● Explore adult services in the local community in the areas of postsec- ondary education, employment, and recreation.
Tips for Neighbors, Friends, and Potential Employers
● Seek ways to become part of a com- munity support network for individu- als with a hearing or vision loss. Be alert to ways in which these individuals can become and remain actively involved in community employment, neighbor- hood recreational activities, and local church functions.
● As potential employers in the commu- nity, seek out information on employ- ment of people with a hearing or vision loss. Locate programs that focus on establishing employment opportuni- ties for people with a hearing or vision loss, while meeting your needs as an employer.
13-1 Describe how the lives of people with sensory disabilities have changed since the advent of IDEA.
● IDEA’s commitment to education in the least restrictive environment has resulted in classroom inclusion of many children and youth who have sensory disabilities.
● Technological advances over the last three decades have led to improved outcomes in academics, social opportunities, and independence for people who have sensory disabilities.
13-2 Explain the various definitions and classifica- tions of hearing and vision loss. Hearing Loss
● People who are deaf typically have profound or total loss of auditory sensitivity and very little, if any, auditory perception.
● For people who are deaf, the primary means of information in- put is through vision; speech received through the ears is not understood.
Chapter Review
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● People who are hard of hearing (partially hearing) generally have residual hearing through the use of a hearing aid, which is sufficient to process language through the ear successfully.
Vision Loss ● Legal blindness is determined by visual acuity of 20/200 or worse in the best eye after correction or by a field of vision of 20 percent or less.
● Educational definitions of blindness focus primarily on students’ inability to use vision as an avenue for learning.
● People who are partially sighted have a visual acuity greater than 20/200 but not greater than 20/70 in the best eye after correction.
● People who are partially sighted can still use vision as a primary means of learning.
13-3 Describe the characteristics and prevalence of children and youth with sensory disabilities. Hearing Loss
● Estimates of hearing loss in the United States are as high as 28 million people; approximately 11 million people have signifi- cant irreversible hearing loss, and one million are deaf.
● More than 69,000 students between the ages of 6 and 21 have a hearing impairment and are receiving special education services in U.S. schools. These students account for approxi- mately 1.2 percent of school-age students identified as having a disability.
Vision Loss ● Approximately 20 percent of all children and adults have some vision loss; 3 percent (9 million people) have a significant vi- sion loss that will require some type of specialized services and supports.
● Fifty percent of people over the age of 65 experience a signifi- cant loss of vision (including cataracts).
● Over 23,000 students have visual impairments and receive specialized services in U.S. public schools.
13-4 List the causes and risk factors associated with sensory disabilities. Hearing Loss
● Although more than 200 types of deafness have been related to hereditary factors, the cause of 50 percent of all hearing loss remains unknown.
● A common hereditary disorder is otosclerosis (bone destruction in the middle ear).
● Nonhereditary hearing problems evident at birth may be associ- ated with maternal health problems: infections (e.g., rubella), anemia, jaundice, central nervous system disorders, the use of drugs, sexually transmitted disease, chicken pox, anoxia, and birth trauma.
● Acquired hearing losses are associated with postnatal infec- tions, such as measles, mumps, influenza, typhoid fever, and scarlet fever.
● Environmental factors associated with hearing loss include extreme changes in air pressure caused by explosions, head trauma, foreign objects in the ear, and loud noise. Loud noise is rapidly becoming one of the major causes of hearing problems.
● Intellectual development for people with hearing loss is more a function of language development than of cognitive ability. Any difficulties in performance appear to be closely associated with speaking, reading, and writing the English language but are not related to level of intelligence.
● Speech and English language skills are the areas of develop- ment most severely affected for those with a hearing loss. The effects of a hearing loss on English language development vary considerably.
● Most people with a hearing loss are able to use speech as the primary mode for language acquisition. People who are con- genitally deaf are unable to receive information through the speech process unless they have learned to speech-read.
● Reading is the academic area most negatively affected for stu- dents with a hearing loss.
● Social and psychological development in children with a hear- ing loss may be delayed due to barriers in language acquisition, which may lead to limited opportunities for social interaction. Children who are deaf may have more adjustment challenges when attempting to communicate with children who can hear, but they appear to be more secure when conversing with chil- dren who are also deaf.
Vision Loss ● A number of genetic conditions can result in vision loss, in- cluding albinism, retinitis pigmentosa, retinoblastoma, optic atrophy, cataracts, severe myopia associated with retinal de- tachment, lesions of the cornea, abnormalities of the iris, mi- crophthalmia, hydrocephalus, anophthalmia, and glaucoma.
● Acquired disorders that can lead to vision loss prior to birth in- clude radiation, maternal drug use, and infections. Vision loss after birth may be due to several factors, including trauma, in- fections, inflammations, and tumors.
● The leading cause of acquired blindness in children worldwide is vitamin A deficiency (xerophthalmia). Cortical visual impair- ment (CVI) is also a leading cause of acquired blindness.
● Refractive eye problems occur when the cornea or lens fail to focus light rays properly on the retina. Refractive problems in- clude hyperopia (farsightedness), myopia (nearsightedness), astigmatism (blurred vision), and cataracts.
● Muscle disorders occur when the major muscles within the eye are inadequately developed or atrophic, resulting in a loss of control and an inability to maintain tension. Muscle disorders include nystagmus (uncontrolled rapid eye movement), strabis- mus (crossed eyes), and amblyopia (loss of vision due to muscle imbalance).
● Receptive eye problems occur when the retina and/or optic nerve degenerate or become damaged. Receptive eye problems include optic atrophy, retinitis pigmentosa, retinal detachment, retinopathy of prematurity, and glaucoma.
13-5 Describe the assessment procedures used to identify sensory disabilities in children and youth.
● Early detection of hearing and vision loss can prevent or mini- mize the impact of the disability on the overall development of an individual.
C H A P T E R R E V I E W
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C H A P T E R 13 S E N S O R Y D I S A B I L I T I E S : H E A R I N G A N D V I S I O N L O S S352
Hearing Loss ● A multidisciplinary approach is often used in the assessment of hearing loss. Specialists may include pediatricians or family practitioners, geneticists, otologists, and audiologists.
● Following assessment of hearing loss, treatment may include medical therapy, sound amplification techniques, or surgical procedures.
Vision Loss ● Much vision loss can be prevented through genetic screening and counseling, appropriate prenatal care, and early develop- mental assessment.
13-6 Describe the different interventions for children and youth with sensory disabilities from early childhood through adulthood. Hearing Loss
● Most children and youth who have hearing loss (77 percent) are taught in inclusive classrooms for at least part of the school day.
● There are four approaches to education for students who have hearing loss:
● The auditory approach to communication emphasizes the use of amplified sound and residual hearing to develop oral com- munication skills.
● The oral approach to communication emphasizes the use of amplified sound and residual hearing but may also employ speech-reading, reading and writing, and speech training.
● The manual approach stresses the use of signs in teaching children who are deaf to communicate.
● Total communication employs the use of residual hearing, amplification, speech-reading, speech training, reading, and writing in combination with manual systems to teach com- munication skills to children with a hearing loss.
Vision Loss ● Children with vision loss are at a distinct disadvantage in devel- oping speech and language skills because they are unable to visually associate words with objects. Preschool-age and school- age children with vision loss may develop a phenomenon known as verbalisms, or the excessive use of speech (wordiness), which may lead to using words that have little meaning to them.
● In the area of written language, students with vision loss have more difficulty organizing thoughts to write a composition. Decoding for reading may be delayed because such students often use braille or large-print books as the media to decode.
Reading comprehension is also affected because it depends so much on the experiences of the reader.
● Other factors that may influence academic achievement include (1) late entry into school; (2) failure in inappropriate school pro- grams; (3) loss of time in school due to illness, treatment, or surgery; (4) lack of opportunity; and (5) slow rate of acquiring information.
● People with vision loss are unable to imitate the physical man- nerisms of sighted peers and thus do not develop body lan- guage, an important form of social communication.
● People with vision loss are often excluded from social activities that are integrally related to the use of vision, thus reinforcing the mistaken idea that they do not want to participate.
● Lack of sight may prevent people from understanding their own relative position in space, and may affect fine motor coordina- tion and interfere with their ability to manipulate objects.
● People who are blind do not perform as well as people with sight on complex tasks of perception, including form identifica- tion, spatial relations, and perceptual-motor integration.
● Education programs for students who are blind or have partial sight should include the following:
● Mobility and orientation training focuses on the ability to move safely, efficiently, and independently through the envi- ronment, enhancing individuals’ opportunities to learn more about the world and thus be less dependent on others. Lack of mobility restricts individuals with vision loss in nearly every aspect of educational life.
● Daily living skills acquisition for children with vision loss should in- clude routine daily living skills that are not easily learned through everyday experiences. These children must be encouraged and supported as they develop life skills, and not be overprotected from everyday challenges and risks by family and friends.
● The development of optical aids, including corrective glasses and contact lenses, has greatly improved access to the sighted world for people with vision loss.
● Medical treatment may range from complex laser surgical procedures and corneal transplants to drug therapy (such as atropinization).
● Mobility of people with vision loss can be enhanced by the use of auditory pedestrian signals. Restaurant menus, elevator floor buttons, and signs in buildings (such as rest rooms) can be produced in braille. Access to community services is greatly enhanced by devices that use synthesized speech.
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Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Standards to Accompany Chapter 13
If you are thinking about a career in special education, you should know that many states use national standards developed by the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) to assess a teacher candidate’s knowledge and skills for working with students with disabilities. See a complete listing of the seven CEC Content Standards on the inside cover of this text.
1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Difference
2 Learning Environments 4 Assessment 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies 6 Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Mastery Activities and Assignments To master the content within this chapter, complete the following activities and assignments: 1. Complete a written test of the chapter’s content. If your
instructor requires a written test of your content knowl- edge for this chapter, keep a copy for your portfolio.
2. Review the Case Study for Embracing Diversity, “Xeeb,” and respond in writing to the Application Questions.
Keep a copy of the Case Studies and your written re- sponses for your portfolio.
3. Participate in a community service learning activity. Community service is a valuable way to enhance your learning experience. Develop a reflective journal of the service learning experience for your portfolio.
C H A P T E R R E V I E W
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354
CHAPTER 14
Physical Disabilities and Other Health Disorders
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Learning Objectives After you complete this chapter, you will be able to:
14-1 Describe how the lives of people with physical disabilities and other health disorders have changed since the advent of IDEA.
14-2 Describe cerebral palsy, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
14-3 Describe spina bifida, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
14-4 Describe spinal cord injury, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
14-5 Describe muscular dystrophy, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
14-6 Describe AIDS, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
14-7 Describe asthma, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
14-8 Describe epilepsy, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
14-9 Describe diabetes, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
14-10 Describe cystic fibrosis, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
14-11 Describe sickle-cell disease, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
14-12 Describe traumatic brain injury, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
14-13 Describe attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
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355
SNAPSHOT I Have Cerebral Palsy … It Doesn’t Have Me!
Hi! My name is Michael Anwar, and I am a fifth-grade general education student at Evergreen Elementary in the Mead School District in Mead, Washington. I was born with cerebral palsy. The doctors told my mom that I would never be able to do things like most kids. For instance, I would never be able to walk.
There are many different types of cerebral palsy. I have ataxic ce- rebral palsy, which is characterized by fluctuating muscle tone and un- coordinated movement patterns. My cerebral palsy affects my gross motor skills (balance, posture, functional mobility), fine motor skills (hand skills), and communication skills (articulation and breathing).
When I first started school, I had difficulty walking, talking, singing, maintaining balance to sit at a table, getting on and off the school bus, eat- ing, keeping up with my assignments, managing my clothing and backpack, using the bathroom, and all of the other typical things that preschool- ers do (e.g., cutting, coloring, gluing, holding a crayon).
At school, I have an individual- ized education plan (IEP). This is a legally binding document that defines my education program. My team is comprised of me, my mom and dad, a paraeducator, teacher, education
specialist, school psychologist, as well as occupational, physical, and speech therapists. Through the years, they have taught me to be my own self-advocate.
Thanks to a lot of hard work on my part and with my therapist’s help, I am now independent in almost ev- erything I do at school. I can indepen- dently walk, talk, and sing. I can sit at a regular desk and get on and off the school bus with my neighborhood friends. During lunch, I can carry my own lunch tray, eat with my friends, and play safely on the playground. I am able to keep up with all of my classroom assignments because my teacher and paraeducator support me in using assistive technology. I use a laptop with technology that allows me to scan in worksheets so
I can type on them instead of write. Throughout the school day, I am able to take my coat on and off all by my- self. I can also put on my backpack at the end of the day. I am able to use the bathroom all by myself. I can hold a crayon, color, and glue, beautifully. I am also able to be independent in PE, music, and library because my teach- ers adapt or modify assignments as necessary.
My ability to be independent in school has inspired me to participate in outside activities. My outside in- terests include wheelchair basketball, football, adapted snowboarding, four- wheeling, weight lifting, playing with my two dogs, and swimming.
In the past, people with cerebral palsy did not have many options. Today, I know that I can accomplish any goal that I set for myself. The reasons that I have been able to over- come many obstacles in my life are because of my great sense of humor, my flexibility, my self-acceptance, and, besides, I am irresistibly cute! I look forward to driving, holding a job, dating, getting married, and raising a family. My disability does not disable ME … I disable it!!!!
SOURCE: Adapted from Anwar, M., Boyd, B., & Romesburg, A. M. (2007). “I Have Cerebral Palsy … It Doesn’t Have Me!” Exceptional Parent, 37(6), 100.
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14-1 A Changing Era in the Lives of People with Physical Disabilities and Other Health Disorders Advancements and inventions in many fields are bringing hope to many children, youth, and adults with physical disabilities as well as their families. Physical disabilities may influence a person’s ability to move about, to use arms and legs effectively, to swallow food, and/or to breathe independently. Physical disabilities may also affect other primary functions, such as vision, cognition, speech, language, hearing, and bowel and bladder control. However, as indicated earlier, technologies, inventions, and developments in many fields are improving the lives of young people and adults with physical disabilities.
The degree to which individuals with physical disabilities participate in their neigh- borhoods and communities is directly related to the quality and timeliness of treatments
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
14 -1 A C H A N G I N G E R A I N T H E L I V E S O F P E O P L E W I T H P H Y S I C A L D I S A B I L I T I E S A N D O T H E R H E A LT H D I S O R D E R S
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C H A P T E R 14 P H Y S I C A L D I S A B I L I T I E S A N D O T H E R H E A LT H D I S O R D E R S356
received from various professionals; the nurturing and encouragement provided by parents, siblings, and teachers; the support and acceptance offered by peers, neighbors, relatives, and other community members; and the careful application of assistive and related technologies.
Developments in assistive technologies, stem cell research, person-specific medications, advanced surgical techniques, transplants, gene therapies, and other preventative and early therapies have and will continue to have lasting and positive impacts on infants, children, youth, and adults with physical disorders.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) uses the term orthopedic impairment to describe students with physical disabilities and the term other health impaired to describe students with health disorders.
The discussion of physical disabilities will be limited to a representative sample of physically disabling conditions: cerebral palsy, spina bifida, spinal cord injuries, and muscular dystrophy. We will present important information about definitions, prevalence, causation, and interventions.
As described in IDEA, health disorders cause individuals to have “limited strength, vitality, or alertness, due to chronic or acute health problems such as a heart condition, tuberculosis, rheumatic fever, nephritis, asthma, sickle-cell anemia, hemophilia, epilepsy, lead poisoning, leukemia, or diabetes which adversely affect … educational performance” (23 Code of Federal Regulations, Section 300.5 [7]). In recent years, new subgroups have emerged within the health disorders area. They are often referred to as medically fragile and/or technologically dependent (American Federation of Teachers, 2009). These indi- viduals are at risk for medical emergencies and often require specialized support in the form of ventilators or nutritional supplements. Often children or youth who are medically fragile have progressive diseases such as cancer or AIDS. Other children have episodic conditions that lessen their attentiveness, stamina, or energy.
Health disorders affect children, youth, and adults in a variety of ways. For example, a child with juvenile diabetes who has engaged in a vigorous game of volleyball with classmates may need to drink a little fruit juice or soda pop just before or after an activity to regulate blood sugar levels. An adult with diabetes may need to follow a special diet and regularly receive appropriate doses of insulin. The following health disorders will be reviewed in this section: acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), asthma, seizure disorders (epilepsy), diabetes, cystic fibrosis (CF), sickle-cell disease (SCD), traumatic brain injury (TBI), and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Again, there is cause for optimism for children, youth, and adults with health disorders. This optimism centers on research and development efforts in many fields that are pro- ducing new person-specific medications, gene therapies, assistive devices, new surgical procedures, and a host of other inventions that heighten an individual’s capacity to function more fully and to mitigate some of the effects of the health disorders.
14-2 Cerebral Palsy Cerebral palsy (CP) represents a group of chronic conditions that affect muscle coordina- tion and body movement. It is a neuromuscular disorder caused by damage to one or more specific areas of the brain, most often occurring during fetal development usually before birth, but may follow during or shortly after birth. Cerebral refers to the brain, and palsy speaks to muscle weakness and poor motor control. Secondary conditions may develop with CP, which may improve, worsen, or remain the same (American Academy for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine, 2011; Parkes & Hill, 2010).
Movement characteristics of individuals with CP include spastic—stiff and difficult movement; athetoid—involuntary and uncontrolled movement; and ataxic—disturbed depth perception and very poor sense of balance. Individuals with spastic CP may experi- ence ongoing challenges with pain (Gorodzinsky, Hainsworth, & Weisman, 2011). There are several categories for cerebral palsy, which depend on the part of parts of the body affected (see Table 14.1).
Individuals with CP are likely to have mild to severe problems in nonmotor areas of functioning, including hearing impairments, speech and language disorders, intellectual
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Physical disabilities Disabilities that can affect a person’s ability to move about, use the arms and legs, and/or breathe independently.
Other health impaired A category of disability that includes students with limited strength as a consequence of health problems.
Health disorders Disabling conditions characterized by limited stamina, vitality, or alert- ness due to chronic or acute health problems.
Medically fragile A disability category that includes people who are at risk for medical emergencies and often depend on technological support to sustain health or even life.
Technologically dependent A disability category that includes people who require some techno- logical assistance to meet their essential health needs while partic- ipating in daily activities.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Orthopedic impairment An impairment such as an amputa- tion, the absence of a limb, or a condition associated with cerebral palsy that may affect physical and educational performance.
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14 -2 C E R E B R A L PA L S Y 357
deficits, visual impairments, and general perceptual problems. Because of the multifaceted nature of this condition, many individuals with CP are considered people with multiple disabilities. Thus, CP cannot be characterized by any one set of common symptoms or attributes; it is a condition in which a variety of problems may be present in differing degrees of severity.
14-2a Prevalence and Causation About 764,000 individuals in the United States display clinical features of CP. Nearly 10,000 infants are born each year with CP or develop it shortly after birth. The prevalence rate for CP is 3.3 per 1,000, with many more boys affected than girls (4:1) (United Cerebral Palsy, 2012). The fundamental causes of CP are insults to the brain (Cerebral Palsy Alliance, 2015). Seventy percent of these insults take place during the intrauterine period of develop- ment (Yamamoto, 2007). Thirty percent of these insults occur during the birthing process. Any condition that can adversely affect the brain can cause CP. Environmental toxins, malnutrition, radiation damage, maternal disease, infections (measles, HIV, syphilis, etc.), prematurity, trauma, multiple births, insufficient oxygen to the brain—all of these and many more are risk factors for the development of CP (United Cerebral Palsy, 2012). Early symptoms of CP include delayed motor development, abnormal muscle tone, and atypical motor functioning.
14-2b Interventions There is no cure for CP; rather, professionals and parents must work to manage the condi- tion and its various manifestations, beginning as soon as the CP is diagnosed. Early and ongoing interventions and therapies center on the child’s movement, social and emotional development, learning, language, speech, and hearing.
Effective interventions for the various forms of CP are based on accurate and continuous assessments. Motor deficits and other challenges associated with CP are not unchanging but evolve over time. Continuous assessment allows care providers to adjust treatment programs and select placement options in accordance with the emerging needs of the child, youth, or adult (Parkes & Hill, 2010).
Management of CP is a multifaceted process that involves many medical and human service specialties working in teams (United Cerebral Palsy, 2012). These teams, composed of medical experts, physical and occupational therapists, teachers, social workers, volun- teers, and family members, join together to help children, youth, and adults with CP realize their potential and self-selected goals. Vital goals of management/therapy may include developing or improving existing skills, decreasing complications of CP, lessening skeletal deformity, improving mobility, and developing communication skills.
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Table 14.1 Topographical Descriptions of Paralytic Conditions
Description Affected Area
Monoplegia One limb
Paraplegia Lower body and both legs
Hemiplegia One side of the body
Triplegia Three appendages or limbs, usually both legs and one arm
Quadriplegia All four extremities and usually the trunk
Diplegia Legs more affected than arms
Double hemiplegia Both halves of the body, with one side more affected than the other
© 2014 Cengage Learning
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C H A P T E R 14 P H Y S I C A L D I S A B I L I T I E S A N D O T H E R H E A LT H D I S O R D E R S358
The thrust of the management efforts depends on the nature of the problems and strengths presented by the individual child, youth, or adult. More specifically, interven- tions are directed at
● preventing additional physical deformities; ● decreasing adverse symptoms; ● developing useful posture and movements; ● providing appropriate surgeries when needed; ● dealing with feeding and swallowing problems; ● developing appropriate motor skills; ● securing suitable augmentative communication and other assistive devices; ● prescribing appropriate medications to reduce spasticity, drooling, muscle spasms,
seizures, and to aid body control; and ● developing mobility and appropriate independence skills. (Kahn, 2009; United
Cerebral Palsy, 2012)
Because of the multifaceted nature of CP, other specialists may also be involved, including ophthalmologists, audiologists, massage therapists, speech and language clinicians, and vocational and rehabilitation specialists.
Physical and occupational therapists play significant roles in the lives of children and youth with CP (Palisano et al., 2012). These individuals provide essentially three types of crucial services: (1) assessments to detect deformities and deficits in movement quality; (2) program planning, such as assisting with the writing of IEPs and other treatment plans, selecting adaptive equipment and assistive devices, and developing home and school pro- grams for parents and other family members; and (3) delivery of therapy services.
My Life with Cerebral Palsy: Removing the Fence Around Social Barriers One Post at a Time
Laura Forde is a young adult. She has been blogging for several years. As a child, she felt quite lonely and secluded because others her age did not know how to communicate with her. However, as she moved through her schooling, she devel- oped greater independence, be- coming a “spunky and determined adult.” She now communicates reg- ularly from her blog. What follows is one of her recent postings:
Why I Am Glad I Grew Up in the Time I Did
In coming up with today’s post, I found myself in a reflective space. … [O]ut my window, the snow is softly falling and the forecast later today looks bleak so I am told. It is this weather that leaves the thought of
going out to be an undesired one, and yet I have a strong need: the need for community.
The Digital Age Helps the Disabled
I often wonder what my life would be like if I grew up in a different time. The Internet helps to maintain or build a community that I otherwise wouldn’t have. The digital age has helped me be less lonely, less aware of my physical limitation. That isn’t just because of this blog; it’s Face- book, Twitter, AbilityOnline, and the other places online that I frequent.
Why I Love Blogging and Think We All Should Have a Blog
We all have a story worth telling, and I love how the blog for me does
not require any adaptation to par- ticipate; it simply requires learning and a learning curve and some dedi- cation. But I don’t “look” different nor do I do things differently from the next guy that runs a blog. Blogs are about shared experience and I hope you will do me the honor of sharing my blog with your friends and family and your community online. I feel like this blog is helping to reduce social stigma, and with- out the Internet, this blog wouldn’t be here.
SOURCE: Copyright © 2012 by Laura Forde. Laura Forde is a blogger and public speaker from Ontario Canada you can learn more about her at ht tp://lifeof thedif ferently abled.com
LEARNING THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA
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14 -2 C E R E B R A L PA L S Y 359
School-centered services may include indirect treatment provided in the form of consul- tation, training, and informal monitoring of student performance; direct service through regular treatment sessions in out-of-class settings; and in-class or multisite service de- livery to students in general education classrooms, in their homes, or at other community sites (Laverdure & Rose, 2012).
Recent developments in augmentative communication and computer-centered technologies have had a tremendous impact on children, youth, and adults with CP and other conditions that impair speech and language production (Light & McNaughton, 2012). Smartphone and tablet applications have revolutionized communication for these individu- als. Mobile devices are more affordable and easier to manipulate than older technologies, and allow users full access to the Internet, social networks, and the ever-increasing range of specialized communication applications (McNaughton & Light, 2013). These applica- tions allow users or caregivers to build sentences for text-to-speech production or to simply touch an icon to speak a word, phrase, or sentence. Speech recognition software allows individuals with limited movement to type by speaking into a computer or other device.
Selecting augmentative communication devices and applications for a child or youth is a team effort. Teachers, parents, speech and language specialists, physical and occupa- tional therapists, and rehabilitation engineers play important roles in assisting with the selection process. Major benefits of augmentative and alternative communication in gen- eral education classrooms include increased interaction of students with disabilities with classroom peers, increased acceptance of students with disabilities, and greater connec- tions with teachers—thus, resulting in improved relationships, greater learning, and better understanding of children with disabilities. As people with CP move into adulthood, they may require various kinds of support, including continuing therapy, personal assistance services, independent living services, vocational training, and counseling.
VGo: The Ultimate School-Based Robot
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
instead of the bus. He uses VGo to move around school, interact with teachers, chat with his friends be- tween classes, and spend the lunch pe- riod with them without endangering his health.
Lyndon operates his VGo simply with an Internet-connected computer equ- ipped with audio capabilities and a webcam. VGo runs for a full school day before needing to be recharged.
VGo for Remote Students has opened up academic and social environments to other students who are disabled or have immune deficiencies as well. There are no longer boundaries between them and the world that was previously inaccessible.
SOURCE: Adapted from VGo. (2012). VGo Communications, Inc. Retrieved February 22, 2012, from www.vgocom .com/remote-student.
For Some Students, Attending School Isn’t Possible Injuries, extended illnesses, immune deficiencies, and other physical chal- lenges prevent students from physically being able to attend school. School dis- tricts try to accommodate these chil- dren with special needs by providing online courses, in-home tutors, special busing, videoconferencing, and more. But these are expensive and very limit- ing because students miss out on the classroom experience and social life that come with attending school. Now, they can participate in classroom dis- cussions and share in the social aspects of locker-side chats, lunch period, and moving from class to class.
VGo Enables Students to Attend School from a Distance At VGo, we love putting the spotlight on Lyndon Baty, a high school student
in Knox City, Texas, who has an illness that requires him to remain at home because of the risk of physically being in class. He’s a perfect example of the type of student who benefits greatly by being able to “attend” school via his VGo—or “BatyBot” as it’s affectionately known at Lyndon’s school.
From the safety of his home, in the morning, Lyndon gets on his computer
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14-3 Spina Bifida “Spina Bifida [SB] or myelodysplasia is a collective term for malformations of the spinal chord and is the most common NTD [neural tube deficit]. This defect can occur at any level of the spinal cord, although it more commonly affects the lumbar and sacral spine” (Lazzaretti & Pearson, 2010, p. 671). Spina bifida (SB) is characterized by an abnormal opening in the spinal column. It originates in the first days of pregnancy, often before a mother even knows that she is expecting. Through the process of cell division and differentiation, a neural tube forms in the developing fetus. At about 26 to 27 days, this neural tube fails to completely close. This failure results in various forms of spina bifida, frequently causing paralysis of various portions of the body, depending on the location of the opening. It may or may not influence the individual’s intellectual functioning. Spina bifida is usually classified as either spina bifida occulta or spina bifida cystica.
Spina bifida occulta is a very mild condition in which a small slit is present in one or more of the vertebral structures. Most people with spina bifida occulta are unaware of its presence unless they have had a spinal X-ray for diagnosis of some other condition. Spina bifida occulta has little, if any, impact on a developing infant.
Spina bifida cystica is a malformation of the spinal column in which a tumorlike sac herniates through an opening or cleft on the infant’s back (see Figure 14.1). Spina bifida cystica exists in many forms; however, two prominent forms will receive attention in our discussion: spina bifida meningocele and spina bifida myelomeningocele. In spina bifida meningocele, the sac contains spinal fluid but no nerve tissue. In the myelomeningocele type, the sac contains nerve tissue.
Spina bifida myelomeningocele is the most serious form of neural tube defect (NTD). It generally results in weakness or paralysis in the legs and lower body, an inability to control the bladder or bowel voluntarily, and the presence of other orthopedic problems (club feet, dislocated hip, and so on). There are two types of myelomeningocele. In one, the tumorlike sac is open, revealing the neural tissue; in the other, the sac is closed or covered with a combination of skin and membrane.
(a) Normal spine (b) Spine affected by spina bifida occulta
(c) Spina bifida cystica
Cord Bone
Spina bifida meningocele Spina bifida myelomeningocele
Abnormal opening in bone
Figure 14.1 Side Views of the Spine
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14 – 3 S P I N A B I F I DA 361
14-3a Prevalence and Causation Prevalence figures for SB is one in 1,500 births. The highest rates for these defects occur with Hispanic women and the lowest rates appear in Asian and African American women. The prevalence of spina bifida (SB) has decreased over time in part because of prenatal screening, increased consumption of folic acid by pregnant mothers, and elective termina- tions of pregnancies (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014a).
The exact cause of SB is unknown, although there is a slight tendency for the condition to run in families. In fact, myelomeningocele appears to be transmitted genetically, prob- ably as a function of certain prenatal and environmental factors interacting with genetic predispositions (Nehring, 2010). It is also possible that certain antiseizure medications taken by the mother prior to or at the time of conception, or during the first few days of pregnancy, may be responsible for the defect. Environmental factors such as nutrition and diet also play a role.
Folic acid deficiencies have been implicated strongly in the causation of SB. Preg- nant mothers should take particular care to augment their diets with 0.4 mg of folic acid each day. Folic acid is a common water-soluble B vitamin. Intake of this vitamin reduces the probability of neural tube defects in developing infants (Spina Bifida Association of America, 2012). The regular use of vitamin B12 may also reduce the incidence of SB and NTDs (Nehring, 2010).
Infant exposure to various teratogens may also induce defects in the spine. These include valproic acid, carbamazepine (a seizure control medication), and other agents/ drugs. Other causative factors include radiation, maternal hyperthermia (high fever), and excess glucose. Also, congenital rubella has been implicated in causing SB and NTDs (Nehring, 2010).
14-3b Interventions Several tests are now available to identify babies with myelomeningocele before they are born. One such test involves analysis of the mother’s blood for the presence of a specific fetal protein (alpha-fetoprotein, AFT). AFT leaks from the developing child’s spine into the amniotic fluid of the uterus and subsequently enters the mother’s bloodstream. If blood tests prove positive for this AFT, ultrasonic scanning of the fetus may be performed to confirm the diagnosis. SB may also be detected through an ultrasound of an emerging fetus, potentially revealing a malformation of the spine.
Confirmation of the myelomeningocele creates intense feelings in parents. If the diag- nosis is early in the child’s intrauterine development, parents are faced with the decision of continuing or discontinuing the pregnancy or subjecting the emerging fetus to intrauterine surgery. There are, however, increased risks associated with this surgery for mothers and infants. These include early labor and delivery, fetal demise, and potential problems with bladder and bowel functioning in affected infants (Nehring, 2010). If parents decide to continue the pregnancy, they have time to process their intense feelings and to prepare for the child’s surgery, birth, and care. If the decision is to discontinue the pregnancy, they must deal with the feelings produced by this action as well. If the condition is discovered at the time of the child’s birth, it also produces powerful and penetrating feelings, the first of which is generally shock. All members of the health team (physicians, nurses, social workers, and so on), as well as other people (clergy, siblings, parents, and close friends), can help parents cope with the feelings they experience and the decisions that must be made.
Immediate action is often called for when the child with myelomeningocele is born, depending on the nature of the lesion, its position on the spine, and the presence of other related conditions. Decisions regarding medical interventions are extremely difficult to make, for they often entail problems and issues that are not easily or quickly resolved. For example, in 80 percent of children with myelomeningocele, a portion of the spinal cord is exposed, placing them at great risk for developing bacterial meningitis, which has a mortality rate of over 50 percent.
The decision to undertake surgery is often made quickly if the tissue sac is located very low on the infant’s back. The purpose of the surgery is to close the spinal opening and lessen the potential for infection.
Teratogens Substances or conditions that cause malformations.
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Another condition that often accompanies myelomeningocele is hydrocephalus, a condi- tion characterized by excessive accumulation of cerebral fluid within the brain. More than 25 percent of children with myelomeningocele exhibit this condition at birth. Moreover, 70 to 90 percent of all children with myelomeningocele develop it after they are born. Surgery may also be performed for this condition in the first days of life. The operation includes inserting a small, soft plastic tube between the ventricles of the brain and con- necting this tube with an absorption site in the abdomen. The excessive spinal fluid is diverted from the ventricles of the brain to a thin layer of tissue, the peritoneum, which lines the abdominal cavity (see Figure 14.2).
Children with spina bifida myelomeningocele may have little if any voluntary bowel or bladder control. This condition is directly attributable to the paralysis caused by mal- formation of the spinal cord and removal of the herniated sac containing nerve tissues. However, children as young as 4 years old can be taught effective procedures to manage bladder problems. As they mature, they can develop effective regimens and procedures for bowel management (Velde, Biervliet, Bruyne, & Winckel, 2013).
Physical therapists play a critical role in helping children as they learn to cope with the paralysis caused by myelomeningocele (Stark et al., 2014). Paralysis obviously limits the children’s exploratory activities, so critical to later learning and perceptual–motor perfor- mance. With this in mind, many such children are fitted with modified skateboards or other wheeled devices that allow them to explore their surroundings. Utilizing the strength in their arms and hands, they become quite adept in exploring their home and neighborhood environments. Gradually, they move to leg braces, crutches, a wheelchair, or a combina- tion of the three. Some children are ambulatory and do not require the use of a wheelchair.
Education programs for students with serious forms of spina bifida vary according to the needs of each student (Jahns, 2008). The vast majority of students with myelomenin- gocele are served in general education classrooms. School personnel can contribute to the well-being of these students in several ways: making sure that physical layouts permit students to move effectively with their crutches or wheelchairs through classrooms and other settings; supporting students’ efforts in using various bladder and bowel manage- ment procedures and ensuring appropriate privacy in using them; requiring these students to be as responsible as anyone else in the class for customary assignments; involving them fully in field trips, physical education, and other school-related activities; and communicat- ing regularly with parents. Additionally, if a student has a shunt, teachers should be alert to signs of its malfunctioning, including fever, irritability, neck pain, headache, vomiting, reduced alertness, and decline in school performance. These symptoms may appear very
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Standard 7 Collaboration
Tube to abdominal cavity
Valve to regulate pressure
Tube inserted into lateral ventricle
Figure 14.2 Ventriculoperitoneal Shunt
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14 – 4 S P I N A L CO R D I N J U R Y 363
quickly and may be mistaken for flu-like symptoms. Teachers should take any of these aforementioned symptoms very seriously. As with all physical disabilities, collaboration and cooperation among all caregivers are vitally important to the well-being of each child or youth.
14-4 Spinal Cord Injury Spinal cord injuries happen without any advanced notice. They are generally a result of some normal activity—driving a car, hiking, skiing, sledding, or diving. About 12,500 spinal cord injuries take place each year in the United States (National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center, 2014). “Spinal cord injury (SCI) is damage to the spinal cord that results in a loss of function such as mobility or feeling. Frequent causes of damage are trauma (car accident, gunshot, falls, etc.) or disease (polio, spina bifida, Friedreich’s ataxia, etc.). The spinal cord does not have to be severed for a loss of functioning to occur. In fact, in most people with an SCI, the spinal cord is intact, but the damage to it results in loss of functioning” (Spinal Cord Injury Resource Center, 2012).
When the spinal cord is traumatized or severed, spinal cord injury (SCI) occurs. Trauma can result through extreme extension or flexing from a fall, an automobile accident, or a sports injury. The cord can also be severed through the same types of accidents, although such occurrences are extremely rare. Usually in such cases, the cord is bruised or otherwise injured, after which swelling and (within hours) bleeding often occurs. Gradually, a self- destructive process ensues, in which the affected area slowly deteriorates and the damage becomes irreversible (Spinal Cord Injury Resource Center, 2012).
The overall impact of injury on an individual depends on the site and nature of the insult. If the injury occurs in the neck or upper back, the resulting paralysis and effects are usually quite extensive. If the injury occurs in the lower back, paralysis is confined to the lower extremities. Similar to individuals with spina bifida, those who sustain spinal cord injuries may experience loss of voluntary bowel and bladder function.
Spinal cord injuries rarely occur without individuals sustaining other serious damage to their bodies. Accompanying injuries may include head trauma, fractures of some portion of the trunk, and significant chest injuries.
The physical characteristics of spinal cord injuries are similar to those of spina bifida myelomeningocele except there is no tendency for the development of hydrocephalus. The terms used to describe the impact of spinal cord injuries are paraplegia, quadriplegia, and hemiplegia. Note, however, that these terms are global descriptions of functioning and are not precise enough to convey accurately an individual’s actual level of motor functioning.
14-4a Prevalence and Causation About 450,000 individuals live with SCIs in the United States. Causes include motor vehicle accidents (42 percent); violence—primarily gunshot wounds (15.3 percent); sports-related injuries (7.4 percent); falls (27.1 percent); and other causes (8.1 percent). Significant num- bers, nearly 25 percent, of the SCIs are alcohol-related (Mayo Clinic, 2012). The average age for SCI injuries is now 38 years (Spinal Cord Injury Resource Center, 2012). About 5 percent of the SCIs occur in children, primarily from automobile-related accidents and falls (Liverman, Altevogt, Joy, & Johnson, 2005).
14-4b Interventions The immediate care rendered to a person with SCI is crucial. The impact of the injury can be magnified if proper procedures are not employed soon after the accident or onset of the condition. Only properly trained personnel should move and transport a child, youth, or adult with a suspected SCI (Stiens, Fawber, & Yuhas, 2013).
The first phase of treatment provided by a hospital is the management of shock. Quickly thereafter, the individual is immobilized to prevent movement and possible further damage. As a rule, surgical procedures are not undertaken immediately. The major goal of medi- cal treatment at this point is to stabilize the spine, manage swelling, and prevent further
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Spinal cord injury (SCI) An injury derived from the bruising, traumatizing, or severing of the spinal cord, producing bleeding and swelling that often produce irreversible damage resulting in a loss of motor and/or sensory functioning.
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C H A P T E R 14 P H Y S I C A L D I S A B I L I T I E S A N D O T H E R H E A LT H D I S O R D E R S364
What Do You Know About Stem Cells?
Many of us hear news and talk show commentaries about stem cells, related research, and anticipated applications of the research. What follows is a series of questions and linked answers that will help you speak more knowledge- ably about this exciting field of study that has profound implications for chil- dren, youth, and adults with all kinds of disabilities, diseases, and injuries.
What is A Stem Cell? Stem cell is an umbrella term used to categorize a group of cells. Stem cells come in different varieties and might be specific to a particular tissue type.
Usually, when people use the term stem cell, they are referring to embryonic stem cells. A stem cell is a cell that is ca- pable of dividing asymmetrically into two daughter cells that are not exactly alike. The overwhelming majority of cells in your body cannot do this.
This may not sound too compelling, but consider that you originated from one cell. The clear cells lining the cornea of your eye and the skin cells gripping this paper originally came from the same
cell. A stem cell line can grow and ma- ture into different cell types and tissues.
Medically, What Are the Potential Uses for Stem Cells? Stem cells can give rise to any tissue. There are types of tissues in adults that do not regrow, or that have the poten- tial to do so very slowly.
Neural (brain and spinal cord) tissue is an example. If scientists can figure out how to trigger neural stem cells to regrow, it may be possible to help para- lyzed patients walk again or to treat dis- eases such as Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, or dementia.
There also exists the possibility of grow- ing tissues for implantation, such as skin for a burn victim or an organ transplant for a cancer patient. The potential uses are numerous and it is likely that more possibilities will come forth once more is known about stem cells.
How Are Human Embryonic Stem Cells Obtained? Human embryonic stem cells are ob- tained from the inner cell mass of a
blastocyst, an extremely small spherical cluster of cells present about five days after fertilization.
Do Scientists have to Create New Embryos Specifically to Destroy Them? Yes and no. There are already over 400,000 extra embryos that have been created via in-vitro fertilization that will never be implanted into surrogate mothers. Essentially, there are a lot of potential resources.
Questions for Reflection 1. What still puzzles you about the talk and debate about stem cells and stem cell research?
2. Should stem cell research be ad- vanced to help treat individuals who have serious debilitating conditions such as Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, or dementia?
SOURCE: Adapted from Graf, R. (2009). Stem cells for dummies: A few questions answered. New University. Retrieved April 17, 2009, from www.newuniversity .org/2007/10/features/stem_cells_for_dummies42/.
REFLECT ON THIS
complications. Pharmacological interventions are also critical during this phase of treat- ment. Recent studies support the use of high and frequent doses of methylprednisolone. This medication often reduces damage to nerves cells, decreases swelling near the injury site, and improves the functional outcome for the affected individual, thus reducing secondary damage. Catheterization may be employed to control urine flow, and steps may be taken to reduce swelling and bleeding at the injury site. Traction may be used to stabilize certain portions of the spinal column and cord.
Medical treatment of SCIs is lengthy and often tedious. See the nearby Reflect on This, “What Do You Know about Stem Cells?” for answers to questions about new stem cell– related treatments. Once physicians and other medical personnel have successfully stabi- lized the spine and treated other medical conditions, the rehabilitation process promptly begins. Individuals with SCI are taught to use new muscle combinations and to take advantage of any and all residual muscle strength. They are also taught to use orthopedic equipment, such as hand splints, braces, reachers, headsticks (for typing), and plate guards.
Traumatic SCI is accompanied by various pain syndromes—sometimes phantom pain. Relieving pain is a significant challenge over the lifespan of individuals with an SCI.
Psychiatric and other support personnel are also engaged in rehabilitation activities. Psychological adjustment to SCI and its impact on an individual’s functioning can take a great deal of time and effort. The goal of all treatment is to help an injured person become as independent as possible.
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14 – 5 M U S C U L A R DY S T R O P H Y 365
As individuals master necessary self-care skills, other educational and career objec- tives can be pursued with the assistance of the rehabilitation team. The members of this collaborative team change constantly in accordance with the needs of each individual.
Education for individuals with spinal cord injuries is similar to that for uninjured children or adults. Teachers must be aware, however, that some individuals with spinal cord injuries will be unable to feel pressure and pain in the lower extremities, so pressure sores and skin breakdown may occur in response to prolonged sitting. Opportunities for repositioning and movement will help prevent these problems. Parents and teachers should be aware of signs of depression that may accompany reentry into school.
14-5 Muscular Dystrophy “The muscular dystrophies (MD) are a group of more than 30 genetic diseases characterized by progressive weakness and degeneration of the skeletal muscles that control movement. Some forms of MD are seen in infancy or childhood, while others may not appear until middle age or later. The disorders differ in terms of the distribution and extent of muscle weakness (some forms of MD also affect cardiac muscle), age of onset, rate of progression, and pattern of inheritance” (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2012b). The muscles of the heart and some other involuntary muscles are also affected in some forms of muscular dystrophy, and a few forms involve other organs as well. Muscular dystrophy is a progressive disorder that may affect the muscles of the hips, legs, shoulders, and arms, progressively causing these individuals to lose their ability to walk and to use their arms and hands effectively and functionally. The loss of ability is attributable to fatty tissue that gradually replaces healthy muscle tissue. Heart muscle may also be affected, result- ing in symptoms of heart failure. The seriousness of the various dystrophies is influenced by heredity, age of onset, the physical location and nature of onset, and the rate at which the condition progresses (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2012b).
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
From Science Fiction to Reality: Ekso Exoskeletons
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
up and moving around. The closest she felt to natural body movements was when she was on horseback.
That was before she was invited to try the Ekso exoskeleton (earlier called eLegs) in 2010. The Ekso is the signa- ture product of Ekso Bionics, one of the pioneering companies manufacturing exoskeletons. Walking with the aid of the Ekso proved even more natural than horseback riding, according to Boxtel. “I had forgotten how tall I was. How it is to look someone eye to eye,” says Box- tel, adding, “[Using Ekso] was the most powerful psychological and emotional experience for me.”
SOURCE: From Ramachandran, Priya. (2012). “From Sci- ence Fiction to Reality: Exoskeletons.” Copyright © 2012 National Spinal Cord Injury Association a program of United Spinal Association. Reprinted with permission.
We’ve all seen exoskeletons in some of the most popular science fiction, even if we didn’t know that ’s what they were called. Sigourney Weaver used an exoskeleton designed for cargo lifting in outer space to kill the alien queen in Aliens. Tony Stark used a more personalized and high-tech one to save the world as Iron Man. Believe it or not, paraplegics could be using one sooner rather than later to walk again.
Introducing the personal exoskeleton— the mechanical bodysuit that could get people with spinal cord injuries back on their feet. The military already has them, rehab clinics are using them, and with costs coming down and technology improving, it looks like they’re going to be available for personal use in the near future.
When a skiing accident left Amanda Boxtel a T11-12 paraplegic 18 years ago, doctors told her what they have told hundreds of thousands of people with spinal cord injuries: You’ll never walk again. Undeterred, she carved out a new life for herself. She started a non- profit, helped create adaptive skiing programs, and spoke often as a moti- vational speaker. Still, Boxtel missed the natural feeling of simply standing
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C H A P T E R 14 P H Y S I C A L D I S A B I L I T I E S A N D O T H E R H E A LT H D I S O R D E R S366
Duchenne-type muscular dystrophy (DMD) is the most common form of childhood muscular dystrophy. DMD generally manifests when children are between the ages of 2 and 6. Early in the second decade of life, individuals with DMD use wheelchairs to move from place to place. By the end of the second decade of life, or early in the third, young adults with DMD die from respiratory insufficiency or cardiac failure (Muscular Dystrophy Association, 2012).
DMD is first seen in the pelvic girdle, although it sometimes begins in the shoulder girdle muscles. With the passage of time, individuals begin to experience a loss of respira- tory function and are unable to cough up secretions that may result in pneumonia. Also, severe spinal curvature develops over time with wheelchair use, although this curvature may be prevented with spinal fusion.
14-5a Prevalence and Causation About 200,000 people are affected by muscular dystrophies and related disorders. About one in every 4,700 males is affected by DMD (Dooley, Gordon, Dodds, & MacSween, 2010). Mothers who are carriers transmit this condition to 50 percent of their male offspring. One-third of the cases of DMD arise by mutation in families with no history of the disease.
Abnormalities in muscle protein genes cause muscular dystrophies. Each human cell contains tens of thousands of genes. Each gene is a string of DNA and is the code or recipe for a given protein. If the recipe for a muscle-related protein is lacking or is missing a key ingredient, the results can be tragic. The missing or diminished ingredient is dystrophin, an essential and critical component of healthy muscle fibers (Muscular Dystrophy Associa- tion, 2011). Without dystrophin, muscle cells explode and eventually die.
14-5b Interventions There is no known cure for muscular dystrophy. Treatments focus on maintaining or im- proving the individual’s functioning and preserving his or her ambulatory independence for as long as possible. The first phases of maintenance and prevention are handled by physical therapists, who work to prevent or correct contractures (a permanent shortening and thickening of muscle fibers).
Drugs identified as catabolic steroids may have significant benefits for children and youth with DMD. The most often prescribed of these drugs is prednisone. It lessens the loss of muscle function or increases muscle strength in individuals with DMD. These drugs may lengthen the period of time in which individuals with DMD may be able to walk and to use their arms—several months to a couple of years (Parent Project Muscular Dystrophy, 2012). However, prednisone also has many potentially damaging side effects, which can be severe over a prolonged period, including loss of bone and muscle tissue, significant weight gain, loss of bone and (ironically) muscle tissue, thinning of the skin, elevated blood pressure and blood sugar, and serious psychological side effects, including depression and sleeping problems.
As DMD becomes more serious, treatment generally includes prescribing supportive devices, such as walkers, braces, night splints, surgical corsets, and hospital beds. Eventu- ally, a person with muscular dystrophy will need to use a wheelchair.
Major symptoms that may be experienced include pain, nausea, vomiting, seizures, convulsions, decreased appetite, mouth sores, fatigue, cough, difficulty swallowing foods, and skin problems.
The terminal nature of DMD and other health conditions pose challenging problems to af- fected individuals, their families, and caregivers. Fortunately, significant progress has been made in helping individuals with terminal illnesses deal with death. Programs developed for families who have a terminally ill child, youth, or adult serve several purposes. They give children with terminal illnesses opportunities to ask questions about death; to express their concerns through writing, play, or other means; and to work through their feelings.
Programs for parents are designed to help them understand their children’s conceptions about death, to suggest ways in which the parents might respond to certain questions or concerns, and to outline the steps they might take in successfully preparing for and responding to the child’s death and related events. One such program is Compassionate Friends (Compassionate Friends, 2012). This organization, which is composed of parents
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14 – 6 H U M A N I M M U N O D E F I C I E N C Y V I R U S ( H I V ) A N D A CQ U I R E D I M M U N O D E F I C I E N C Y S Y N D R O M E ( A I D S ) 367
who have lost children to death, provides sensitive support and resources to other parents who have lost a child to injury or disease.
At this juncture, you may want to examine the Community Support for Lifelong Inclu- sion feature toward the end of this chapter. It offers valuable suggestions for interacting with young children, school-age children, youth, and adults with physical disabilities.
14-6 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a set of symptoms and infections in indi- viduals resulting from the specific injury to the immune system caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS in children and youth is defined by two characteristics: (1) the presence of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a virus that attacks certain white blood cells within the body, and/or the presence of antibodies to HIV in the blood or tissues as well as (2) recurrent bacterial diseases (National Center for HIV/ AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, 2012).
Individuals with AIDS move through a series of disease stages. The first stage is the exposure stage, or the period during which the transmission of the HIV occurs. Young people may be infected with HIV but may not yet exhibit the life-threatening conditions associated with AIDS. The second stage is characterized by the production of antibod- ies in infected individuals. These antibodies appear about 2 to 12 weeks after the initial transmission of the virus. About 30 percent of individuals experience flu-like symptoms for a few days to several weeks. During stage three, the immune system declines, and the virus begins to destroy cells of the immune system. However, many individuals with HIV are asymptomatic during this stage. This asymptomatic phase may continue for 3 to 10 years. About half of all individuals with HIV develop AIDS within 10 years.
Most children with HIV infection are diagnosed before the illness manifests itself (Fahrner & Romano, 2010). For children, the onset of AIDS ranges from one to three years. Generally, AIDS manifests itself within two years of the initial infection (Ball & Bindler, 2008). At stage four, individuals begin to manifest symptoms of a damaged immune system, including weight loss, fatigue, skin rashes, diarrhea, and night sweats. In more severe cases, opportunistic diseases appear in individuals with AIDS. At stage five, recur- rent and chronic diseases begin to take their toll on individuals. Gradually, the immune system fails and death occurs.
Researchers have identified several patterns of disease development in HIV-infected children. The mean age of onset in exposed children is about 4.1 years. About 33 percent of exposed children remain AIDS-free until up to 13 years of age. Often the most serious symptoms do not appear until these children enter school or begin their adolescent years.
14-6a Prevalence and Causation The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention “estimates that 1,201,000 persons aged 13 years and older are living with HIV infection, including 168,300 (14%) who are unaware of their infection. Over the past decade, the annual number of people living with HIV has increased, while the annual number of new HIV infections has remained relatively stable. Still, the pace of new infections continues at far too high a level” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014b). In 2012, approximately 47,989 Americans were diagnosed with HIV infection (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014b).
Increasingly, heterosexual adolescents are at greater risk than infants to contract HIV—this is because of unprotected sexual activities. Statistics indicate that nearly 2,300 adolescents aged 13 to 19 are infected annually, or about six per day (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015a). Left untreated or undiagnosed, youth may not evidence any symptoms of AIDS until 10 years later as adults.
The cause of AIDS is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This virus is passed from one person to another through various means, including the exchange of bodily fluids, usually semen or vaginal secretions; blood exchange through injection drug use (IDU); and
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) A class of viruses that infect and destroy helper T cells of the immune system, making the body unable to combat and counter opportunistic infections.
Immune system A system of organs, tissues, cells, and cell products that attack potentially disease-causing organ- isms or substances.
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exchange through blood transfusions, perinatal contact, and breast milk. Mothers who are infected with HIV can dramatically reduce the transmission of the virus to their yet-to-be born children by taking zidovudine during pregnancy.
Many children with AIDS do not grow normally, do not make appropriate weight gains, are slow to achieve important motor milestones (crawling, walking, and so on), and evi- dence neurological damage (Fahrner & Romano, 2010). As HIV turns into AIDS, these children are attacked by life-threatening opportunistic infections. Also, many of the children, as indicated earlier, develop more serious neurological problems associated with mental retardation, cerebral palsy, and seizure disorders.
14-6b Interventions To date, there is no known cure for AIDS. The best cure for AIDS in children and youth is prevention. Treatment is generally provided by an interdisciplinary team composed of medical, educational, and health care professionals.
Much progress has been made in testing and applying new antiretroviral therapies to combat AIDS and in developing agents to treat opportunistic infections. Early diagnosis of infants with HIV is crucial. Early antiviral therapy and prophylactic treatment of opportunis- tic diseases can contribute significantly to the infected child’s well-being and prognosis over time. Some infants benefit significantly from highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) (Fahrner & Romano, 2010). The frequency and nature of various treatments depend on the age of onset and the age at which the child develops the first opportunistic infection.
Providing appropriate interventions for infants with AIDS can be challenging. These in- fants, like infants without AIDS, are totally dependent on others for their care. Many mothers who pass the AIDS virus on to their children are not adequately prepared to care effectively for their infants. Typically, these mothers come from impoverished environments with little access to health care and other appropriate support services. Additionally, these mothers may be intravenous drug users and, therefore, are not reliable or trustworthy caregivers.
Treating adolescents with HIV and AIDS can be challenging. For example, compliance with medical regimens for all age groups is difficult. However, for those who are HIV- positive and have no obvious symptoms, keeping regular medical appointments and taking antiviral medications are not only highly problematic, but also constant reminders of a chronic, if not fatal, disease. Current treatment advances and carefully maintained drug regimes “have turned a disease that used to be a death sentence into a chronic, manage- able one for individuals who live in countries where antiretroviral therapy is available” (Ricci & Kyle, 2009b, p. 164). These regimens need to be adhered to with almost perfect precision—otherwise the drug resistance sets in and the outcomes are tragic.
Youth with HIV and AIDS need to learn how to make medical regimens a regular part of their lives to maintain good health and longevity. They also require assistance in deal- ing with the psychological reactions of anxiety and depression that often accompany the discovery of HIV infection. Finally, they and others benefit significantly from instruction directed at helping them to understand AIDS, to make wise decisions about their sexual and other high-risk behaviors, to use assertiveness skills, and to communicate effectively with others.
Laws regarding the disclosure of AIDS to others vary across states. Many states and some cities have partner-notification laws—meaning that, if you test positive for HIV, you (or your health care provider) may be legally obligated to tell your sex or needle-sharing partner(s). In some states, if you are HIV-positive and don’t tell your partner(s), you can be charged with a crime. Some health departments require health care providers to report the name of your sex and needle-sharing partner(s) if they know that information—even if you refuse to report that information yourself.
“Some states also have laws that require clinic staff to notify a ‘third party’ if they know that person has a significant risk for exposure to HIV from a patient the staff member knows is infected with HIV. This is called ‘duty to warn’” (AIDS.gov, 2012).
In many states, neither students with AIDS nor their parents are compelled by law to disclose their HIV medical status to school personnel or child care providers (Child Care Law Center, 2005; Fahrner & Romano, 2010). Nevertheless, the parents or students may share this information with a limited number of school-based personnel if they determine
Opportunistic infection An infection caused by germs that are not usually capable of causing infection in healthy people but can do so given certain changes in the immune system (opportunity).
Standard 2 Learning Environments
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14 -7 A S T H M A 369
this would benefit their child, including the school nurse, the principal, and the child’s or youth’s teacher(s). This information should be treated with the utmost confidentiality.
“Unfortunately, there is widespread but unwarranted anxiety among parents whose children attend school with a youngster with AIDS, fearing that their own child may contract the disease. The AIDS virus (human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV) is trans- mitted only through blood, blood products, and sexual contact. Casual physical contact— including touching or holding hands with someone with AIDS, or sharing a drinking glass—will not transfer the AIDS virus” (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2011).
Students with HIV who are on strict medical regimens will need time to take their medications. Missing dosages could seriously jeopardize a student’s health. Fatigue is a common occurrence in these students. Ample opportunities should be available for reju- venation and respite from demanding physical activities.
Essential teacher-related behaviors in working with children and youth with AIDS in- clude working collaboratively with care providers, providing sensitive and nonjudgmental services, heeding the guidelines to prevent blood-borne infections (see Figure 14.3,
“Universal Precautions and Their Benefits in School Settings”), helping young people adhere to their medication regimens, modeling appropriate respectful behaviors, and maintaining privacy and confidentiality. Also, teachers, parents, and other community organizations play key roles providing instruction related to preventing AIDS and its transmission.
14-7 Asthma Asthma is evidenced by swelling and inflammation of the air passages that transport air from the mouth and nose to the lungs. This swelling within the affected passages causes them to narrow, thus limiting the air entering and exiting the individual. Symptoms can be activated by allergens, drugs, foods, inhalants, or other irritants that are drawn into the lungs, resulting in swollen, constricted, or blocked airways. Symptoms include dimin- ished breathing capacity, coughing, wheezing, tightness in the chest, and excessive sputum (Ratcliffe & Kiechhefer, 2010). In severe cases, asthma can be life-threatening (Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America, 2012d).
14-7a Prevalence and Causation Nearly one in ten children in the United States is affected by asthma. Most recent studies suggest that 8 percent of adults and 9.3 percent of children have asthma (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015b).
Asthma is genetic in its origin—it is inherited. However, for asthma to display itself, to be awakened, it must be triggered. Triggers vary greatly across children, youth, and
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Universal Precautions ● Thorough hand washing, before and after contacting individuals, objects, or secretions. ● Use of personal protective equipment (barrier protection) (gloves, masks, etc.). ● Application of safe methods of disposing waste, cleaning up spills, and handling laundry. ● Procedures for dealing with accidental exposure to potentially infectious materials.
Benefits of Adhering to Universal Precautions ● They protect infected individuals from further infection. ● They protect the privacy of infected individuals. ● They protect the health of service providers. ● They protect the health of other students.
SOURCE: Adapted from Best, S. J., Heller, K. W., & Bigge, J. L. (2005). Preventing infectious disease transmission and implementing universal precautions in Chapter 3: Health impairments and infectious diseases in teaching individuals with physical or multiple disabilities (p. 79).
Figure 14.3 Universal Precautions and Their Benefits in School Settings
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adults (Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America, 2012c). In response to these triggers, the large airways (bronchi) contract into spasm. Swelling soon follows, leading to a further narrowing of the airways and excessive mucus production, which leads to coughing and other breathing difficulties.
Triggers include waste from common household insects (house dust mites, cockroaches, and so on), grass pollens, mold spores, and pet dander. Other triggers involve medications, air pollution (ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and so on), cleaning agents, tobacco smoke, and various chemicals and industrial compounds. Also, some early childhood infections, particularly respiratory infections, set the stage for the potential development of asthma. Emotional stress has also been implicated as a potential trigger or aggravator (Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America, 2012c).
14-7b Interventions Several interventions are useful to children, youth, and adults with asthma. It is important for all age groups with asthma to eliminate or moderate exposure to potential triggers— appropriate actions may prevent or moderate asthma symptoms (Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America, 2012a). Interventions include increasing the anti-inflammatory medi- cation in advance of anticipated exposure to certain triggers, using appropriate bronchodilators for much the same purpose, and limiting the time of exposure to potential or known triggers.
As indicated earlier, medications play a key role in treating and managing asthma. Bronchodilators, appropriately administered, reduce the swelling and inflammation in the affected airways and generally provide short-term reprieves from common symptoms. Other physician-prescribed, anti-inflammatory medications regularly administered con- tribute significantly to the management of the disease and its symptoms. For moderate to severe cases of asthma, anti-IgE therapy is recommended. This is a relatively new and very expensive therapy (Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America, 2012b).
Generally, the side effects of the asthma-prescribed medications are minimal. However, frequent use of bronchodilators may indicate a need for further medical consultation. Also, some forms of asthma are cold- or exercise-induced. In these cases, parents and other care providers will want to determine the benefits and related risks in having their children engage in activities that may activate asthma and its symptoms.
Like so many other health conditions, teachers and others who have regular and fre- quent access to children and youth with asthma need to understand the disease and its consequences. Many families will have created an “asthma management plan” with two primary purposes: effectively managing the disease on a daily basis and creating a rescue plan in the event of a severe asthmatic attack. The plan outlines warning signs, identifies rescue medicines, provides steps to take with an attack, and describes conditions that would warrant calling a doctor. The asthma management or action plan is an incredibly helpful tool for school personnel to have on hand (see Table 14.2).
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Standard 7 Collaboration
Table 14.2 Contents of an Asthma Management Plan
Brief history of the student’s asthma: ● Asthma symptoms ● Information on how to contact the student’s health care provider, parent/guardian ● Physician and parent/guardian signature ● List of factors that make the student’s asthma worse ● The student’s personal best peak flow reading if the student uses peak flow monitoring ● List of the student’s asthma medications ● A description of the student’s treatment plan, based on symptoms or peak flow readings,
including recommended actions for school personnel to help handle asthma episodes
SOURCE: Adapted from “Asthma and Physical Activity in the School: Asthma Management Plan,” www.kidneeds.com/diagnostic_categories/articles/asthmaphysicalactiv.htm.
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14 – 8 S E I Z U R E D I S O R D E R S ( E P I L E P S Y ) 371
Frequently, the symptoms associated with asthma are more evident during the day when children or youth participate in various school-related activities (recess, physical education, or other physically demanding activities). If there is some likelihood of severe asthmatic attacks, medications should be available within the school, teachers should know how to administer them, and the medications should be adequately stored in a secure cabinet, generally located in the school nurse’s office. Communication and collaboration among and between teachers, parents, and other school personnel are vital to the success- ful treatment of asthma in children and youth.
14-8 Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy) “Epilepsy is a brain disorder in which clusters of nerve cells, or neurons, in the brain some- times signal abnormally. In epilepsy, the normal pattern of neuronal activity becomes disturbed, causing strange sensations, emotions, and behavior or sometimes convulsions, muscle spasms, and loss of consciousness. … Having a seizure does not necessarily mean that a person has epilepsy. Only when a person has had two or more seizures is he or she considered to have epilepsy. EEGs and brain scans are common diagnostic tests for epi- lepsy” (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2012a). Several classifica- tion schemes have been employed to describe the various types of seizure disorders. We will briefly discuss two types of seizures: tonic/clonic and absence.
Generalized tonic/clonic seizures, formerly called grand mal seizures, affect the entire brain. The tonic phase of these seizures is characterized by a stiffening of the body; the clonic phase is distinguished by repeated muscle contractions and relaxations. Tonic/clonic seizures are often preceded by a warning signal known as an aura, in which the individual senses a unique sound, odor, or physical sensation just prior to the onset of the seizure. In some instances, the seizure is also signaled by a cry or similar sound. The tonic phase of the seizure begins with a loss of consciousness, after which the individual falls to the ground. Initially, the trunk and head become rigid during the tonic phase. The clonic phase follows and consists of involuntary muscle contractions (violent shaking) of the extremi- ties. Irregular breathing, blueness in the lips and face, increased salivation, loss of bladder and bowel control, and perspiration may occur (Epilepsy Foundation, 2009b).
The nature, scope, frequency, and duration of tonic/clonic seizures vary greatly from person to person. Such seizures may last as long as 20 minutes or less than one minute (see Figure 14.4). One of the most dangerous aspects of tonic/clonic seizures is potential injury from falling and striking objects in the environment.
A period of sleepiness and confusion usually follows a tonic/clonic seizure. The indi- vidual may exhibit drowsiness, nausea, headache, or a combination of these symptoms. Such symptoms should be treated with appropriate rest, medication, or other therapeutic
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
1. Cushion the head. 2. Loosen tight necktie or collar. 3. Turn on side. 4. Put nothing in the mouth.
5. Look for identification. 6. Don’t hold the person down. 7. Seizure ends. 8. Offer help
Prescr iption
Drug Ident
ificati on Ca
rd
Diabetic
Seizure Disorder Group # GIC
2000
Memb er # 31
44824 98
Figure 14.4 First Aid for Seizures
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C H A P T E R 14 P H Y S I C A L D I S A B I L I T I E S A N D O T H E R H E A LT H D I S O R D E R S372
remedies. The characteristics and aftereffects of seizures vary in many ways and should be treated with this in mind.
“Absence seizure—also known as petit mal—involves a brief, sudden lapses of con- sciousness. Absence seizures are more common in children than adults. Someone having an absence seizure may look like he or she is staring into space for a few seconds” (Mayo Clinic, 2012a). During these seizures, the brain ceases to function as it normally would. The individual’s consciousness is altered in an almost imperceptible manner. Young people with this type of seizure disorder may experience these seizures as often as 100 times a day. Such inattentive behavior may be viewed as daydreaming by teachers or work su- pervisors, but the episode is really due to momentary bursts of abnormal brain activity that individuals cannot control. The lapses in attention caused by this form of epilepsy can greatly hamper an individual’s ability to respond properly to or profit from a teacher’s presentations or a supervisor’s instructions. Treatment and control of absence seizures are generally achieved through prescribed medications.
14-8a Prevalence and Causation Prevalence figures for seizure disorders vary, in part because of the social stigma associ- ated with them. Epilepsy affects approximately 468,000 children age 17 and younger in the United States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). About 150,000 new cases of epilepsy are diagnosed in children and adults each year (Epilepsy Foundation, 2014). Half of all of the cases of seizure disorders in children appear before 10 years of age. Unfortunately, large numbers of adults and children have seizure disorders that remain undiagnosed and untreated.
The causes of seizure disorders are many, including perinatal factors, tumors of the brain, complications of head trauma, infections of the central nervous system, vascular diseases, alcoholism, infection, maternal injury or infection, and genetic factors (Blosser & Reider-Demer, 2009; Epilepsy Foundation, 2009a). Also, some seizures are caused by ingestion of street drugs, toxic chemicals, and poisons. Nevertheless, no explicit cause can be found in six out of ten individuals with seizure disorders (Epilepsy Foundation, 2014).
Researchers are endeavoring to determine what specific biophysical features give rise to seizures. If they can discover the underlying parameters, they may be able to prevent seizures from occurring.
14-8b Interventions The treatment of seizure disorders begins with a careful medical investigation in which the physician develops a thorough health history of the individual and completes an in-depth physical examination. Moreover, it is essential that the physician receive thorough descrip- tions of the seizure(s). These preliminary diagnostic steps may be followed by other assess- ment procedures, including blood tests, video capturing of seizure episodes, CT scans or MRIs, cranial ultrasounds, and spinal fluid taps to determine whether or not the individual has meningitis (Ricci & Kyle, 2009a). EEGs (electroencephalograms) may also be performed to confirm the physician’s clinical impressions. The electroencephalogram is a test to detect abnormalities in the electrical activity of the brain. However, it should be noted that many seizure disorders are not detectable through electroencephalographic measures. As indi- cated earlier, accurate diagnoses are essential to providing effective treatments (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2012a).
Many types of seizures can be treated successfully with precise drug management. Significant headway has been made with the discovery of effective drugs, particularly for children with tonic/clonic and absence seizures. Maintaining regular medication regimens can be very challenging for children or youth and their parents. Anticonvulsant drugs must be chosen very carefully, however. The potential risk and benefit of each medication must be balanced and weighed. Once a drug has been prescribed, families should be educated in its use, in the importance of noting any side effects, and in the need for consistent administration. In some instances, medication may be discontinued after several years of seizure-free behavior. This is particularly true for those young children who do not have some form of underlying brain pathology.
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14 – 9 D I A B E T E S 373
Other treatments for seizure disorders include surgery, stress management, a vagus nerve stimulator (an electronic device designed to prevent seizures by sending small bursts of electrical energy to the brain), brain infusion of the chemical muscimol into affected areas of the brain, and diet modifications. The goal of surgery is to remove the precise part of the brain that is damaged and is causing the seizures. Surgery is considered pri- marily for those individuals with uncontrollable seizures, essentially those who have not responded to anticonvulsant medications. Using a variety of sophisticated scanning procedures, physicians attempt to isolate the damaged area of the brain that corresponds with the seizure activity. The outcomes of surgery for children and youth with well-defined foci of seizure activity are excellent. Of individuals who undergo surgery, 55 to 90 percent experience positive outcomes (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2012c, 2012d). Obviously, the surgery must be done with great care. Brain tissue, once removed, is gone forever, and the function that the tissue performed is eliminated or only marginally restored.
Stress management is designed to increase a child’s or youth’s general functioning. Because seizures are often associated with illnesses, inadequate rest, and other stressors, parents and other care providers work at helping children, youth, and adults understand the importance of attending consistently to their medication routines, developing emotional resilience, and maintaining healthful patterns of behavior.
Diet modifications are designed to alter the way the body uses energy from food. Typi- cally, our bodies convert the carbohydrates we consume into glucose (sugar). Several types of seizures can be controlled by instituting a ketogenic diet (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2012a; 2012c). This diet focuses on consuming fats rather than carbohydrates. Instead of producing glucose, individuals on this diet produce ketones, a special kind of molecule. This change in food consumption causes alterations in the metabolism of the brain that normally uses sugars to “fire” its functions. For reasons that are not completely understood, the brain is less receptive to certain kinds of seizures under this diet. However, the diet is extraordinarily difficult to maintain on a long-term basis and is now rarely used or recommended.
Individuals with seizure disorders need calm and supportive responses from others— teachers, parents, and peers. The treatment efforts of various professionals and family members must be carefully orchestrated to provide these individuals with opportunities to use their abilities and talents. Educators should be aware of the basic fundamentals of seizure disorders and their management. They should also be aware of their critical role in observing seizures that may occur at school. The astute observations of a teacher may be invaluable to a health care team that is developing appropriate medical and other inter- ventions for a child or youth with seizure disorders. Additionally, teachers should have the necessary skills to attend to seizures before, during, and following their occurrence. It is vitally important that teachers and parents be able to accurately and sensitively describe to other children and youth what has happened when a student experiences a seizure in their classroom and what they might do in a similar situation, thus lessening the chances for misunderstanding and the development of stigmas associated with seizure disorders.
14-9 Diabetes The term diabetes mellitus refers to a developmental or hereditary disorder characterized by inadequate secretion or use of insulin, a substance that is produced by the pancreas and used to process carbohydrates. There are two types of diabetes mellitus: insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), commonly known as type 1 or juvenile-onset diabetes, and noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), referred to as type 2 or adult-onset dia- betes (American Diabetes Association, 2014; Doyle & Grey, 2010).
Glucose—a sugar, one of the end products of digesting carbohydrates—is used by the body for energy. Some glucose is used quickly, whereas some is stored in the liver and muscles for later use. However, muscle and liver cells cannot absorb and store the energy released by glucose without insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas that converts glucose into energy that body cells use to perform their various functions.
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
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Without insulin, glucose accumulates in the blood, causing a condition known as hyper- glycemia. Left untreated, this condition can cause serious, immediate problems for people with IDDM, leading to loss of consciousness or to a diabetic coma (American Diabetes Association, 2014).
Typical symptoms associated with glucose buildup in the blood are extreme hunger, thirst, and frequent urination. Although progress has been made in regulating insulin levels, the prevention and treatment of the complications that accompany diabetes— blindness, cardiovascular disease, and kidney disease—still pose tremendous challenges for health care specialists and affected individuals.
Consider this revealing description of a 9-year-old who had been diagnosed with type 1 diabetes at age 6: “She had pricked her finger for a blood test 9,000 times and received more than 2,000 insulin shots in the past three years. She typically has four blood checks a day, eats on a relentlessly regular schedule, and may wake up out-of-kilter at night when her blood-sugar level drops. The ‘adjustments’ necessitated by diabetes—which as far as she knows will be lifelong—are wrenching” (Clark, 2003, p. 6). This brief description helps us sense the challenges that children and youth with diabetes and their families experience.
IDDM, or juvenile-onset diabetes, is particularly troublesome. Compared with the adult form, juvenile-onset diabetes tends to be more severe and progresses more quickly, thus increasing the likelihood of the onset of conditions associated with type 2 diabetes. Generally, the symptoms of type 1 diabetes are easily recognized. The child develops
an unusual thirst for water and other liquids. His or her appetite also increases substantially, but listlessness and fatigue occur despite increased food and liquid intake. Young people with type 1 diabetes need insulin to convert starches, sugars, and other foods for vitally important energy. Thus, insulin injections are imperative in manag- ing the disease.
In contrast to type 1 diabetes, with type 2 diabetes, insulin injections are not always necessary because the pancreas is still able to produce insulin, but often it does not make sufficient amounts for cell usage. Type 2 diabe- tes (NIDDM) is the most common form of diabetes and is often associated with obesity in individuals over age 40. Individuals with this form of diabetes are at less risk for diabetic comas; most individuals with NIDDM can manage the disorder through exercise and dietary restrictions. If these actions fail, insulin therapy may be necessary.
14-9a Prevalence and Causation Almost 9 percent of the U.S. population has diabetes—29.1 million individuals. Of this number, 21 million have been diagnosed with the condition. Eight million are undiagnosed, and 86 million are prediabetic. Each year, 1.7 million new cases of diabetes are identified in adults 20 and older (American Diabetes Association, 2014). Type 2 diabetes has be- come increasingly common in children—primarily as a result of staggering growth rates in childhood obesity (Science Codex, 2009). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012a), “Childhood obesity has more than tripled in the past 30 years.”
The causes of diabetes remain obscure, although considerable research has been con- ducted on the biochemical mechanisms responsible for it. Diabetes develops gradually in individuals. A combination of genetic dispositions and environmental triggers and condi- tions give rise to type 1 diabetes. The exact variables that underlie this form of diabetes are still unclear.
Individuals who develop type 2 diabetes incrementally create conditions in their body in which their cells become unresponsive to the effects of insulin. Additionally, the pan- creas is unable to make sufficient insulin to overcome this unresponsiveness. Thus, sug- ars accumulate in the bloodstream with very negative outcomes for affected individuals. Like in type 1 diabetes, genetic and environmental variables play a role in the onset of
Photo 14.1 Consistent insulin delivery is essential to the well- being of young people with diabetes.
Co ur
te sy
o f R
ya n
Fu hr
im an
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14 – 9 D I A B E T E S 375
type 2 diabetes. Interestingly, becoming overweight is strongly linked to the develop- ment of type 2 diabetes, although not every individual with type 2 diabetes is overweight (Mayo Clinic, 2012b).
14-9b Interventions Medical treatment centers on the regular administration of insulin, which is essential for children and youth with juvenile diabetes. Several exciting advances have been made in recent years in the monitoring of blood sugar levels and the delivery of insulin to people with diabetes. Also, recent success with pancreas transplants has virtually eliminated the disease for some individuals. Significant progress is also being made in the development of the bioartificial pancreas and gene therapies (Gebel, 2012).
Solid progress has been made in transplanting insulin-producing islet cells to indi- viduals with type 1 diabetes. However, this approach is complicated by shortages in the availability of whole pancreases and by the rejection of these new cells in recipients. Other sources of pancreatic tissue are present in fetal tissue. This controversial approach makes use of tissues—stem cells derived from aborted or unused fetuses. Also, animal islet cells are currently being investigated, particularly islet cells derived from pigs, whose insulin differs by only one molecule from that of humans. However, transplantation of these cells poses similar rejection problems for recipients.
Hybrid technologies are also being pursued. Perhaps the most promising is the pro- duction of artificial beta cells that could be used in an artificial pancreas. This approach entails inserting new genes into naturally occurring cells that would produce insulin and be sensitive to the rise and fall of blood glucose.
Maintaining normal levels of glucose is now achieved in many instances with insulin infusion pumps, which are worn by people with diabetes and are powered by small bat- teries. The infusion pump operates continuously and delivers the dose of insulin that the physician and patient determine. This form of treatment is effective only when used in combination with carefully followed diet and exercise programs. These pumps, if carefully monitored and operated, contribute greatly to “controlling” diabetes, thus reducing or slowing the onset and risks for eye disease, nerve damage, and kidney disease.
Juvenile-onset diabetes is a lifelong condition that can have a pronounced effect on chil- dren or youth in a number of areas. Complications for children with long-standing diabetes include blindness, heart attacks, skin disorders, neuropathy (weakness and numbness) in the feet, and kidney problems. Many of these problems can be delayed or prevented by maintaining adequate blood sugar levels with appropriate food intake, exercise, and insulin injections.
Teachers and other care providers need to work carefully with parents and other medi- cal personnel in monitoring treatment and medication regimens, supporting blood sugar monitoring efforts, and being alert to changes in student behavior or performance that may merit immediate action or consultation with medical or other therapeutic personnel. Also, teachers play key roles in helping children and youth embrace and engage in activities and events that enhance their physical well-being, lessening the likelihood of problems with
Sarah and the “Pump”
CASE STUDY ON EMBRACING DIVERSITY
Sarah, who has juvenile-onset diabe- tes and is now in sixth grade, migrated from her regular, self-administered shots for her diabetes to an insulin infusion pump several years ago. Sarah, however, believes that the pump makes her look different among
her peers and wants to return to the shots. Recently, she “disinstalled” her pump. Her mom is worried about her and her health, knowing that she has played an important role in monitor- ing Sarah’s pump regimens and related insulin doses.
Application Questions 1. How could you help Sarah with the transition she is making?
2. How could you help Sarah’s mother with her concerns about Sarah’s social and medical well-being?
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childhood obesity and related conditions. Communication between teachers and parents is essential in caring for and educating children and youth with diabetes.
14-10 Cystic Fibrosis “Cystic fibrosis is an inherited chronic disease that affects the lungs and digestive system of about 30,000 children and adults in the United States (70,000 worldwide). A defective gene and its protein product cause the body to produce unusually thick, sticky mucus that clogs the lungs and leads to life-threatening lung infections; and obstructs the pancreas and stops natural enzymes from helping the body break down and absorb food” (Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, 2012a). Cystic fibrosis (CF) “is the most common life-shortening genetic illness among white children, adolescents, and young adults” (Hazle, 2010, p. 405). Fortunately, great progress has been made in significantly lengthening the life expectancies of individu- als with CF to more than 37 years—some into their 40s (Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, 2012a).
14-10a Prevalence and Causation In the United States, about 30,000 children and adults have cystic fibrosis. More than 10 million individuals—one in every 31 are carriers of the defective CF gene but do not have the disease (Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, 2012b).
CF is a genetically transmitted disease. A child must inherit a defective copy of the CF gene from each parent to develop the disease. The gene for the CF transfer regulator (CFTR) is very large; some 2,000 mutations have already been identified with the disease. CFTR, a protein, produces improper transportation of sodium and salt (chloride) within cells that line organs such as the lungs and pancreas. CFTR prevents chloride from exiting these cells. This blockage affects a broad range of organs and systems in the body, including reproductive organs in men and women, the lungs, sweat glands, and the digestive system.
The prognosis for individuals with CF depends on a number of factors. The two most critical are early diagnosis of the condition and the quality of care provided after the diagnosis. If the diagnosis occurs late, irreversible damage may be present. With early diagnosis and appropriate medical care, most individuals with CF can achieve weight and growth gains similar to those of their normal peers. Early diagnosis and improved treat- ment strategies have lengthened the average lifespan of individuals with CF; more than half now live into their 30s and 40s.
14-10b Interventions The best and most comprehensive treatment is provided through CF centers located through- out the United States. These centers provide talented medical and support staff (respiratory care personnel, social workers, dieticians, genetic counselors, and psychologists). Moreover, they maintain diagnostic laboratories especially equipped to perform pulmonary function testing and sweat testing. Sweat of children with CF has abnormal concentrations of sodium or chloride; in fact, sweat tests provide the definitive data for a diagnosis of CF in infants and young children.
Interventions for CF are varied and complex, and treatment continues throughout the person’s lifetime. Consistent and appropriate application of the medical, social, educational, and psychological components of treatment enables these individuals to live longer and with less discomfort and fewer complications than in years past. Treatment of CF is de- signed to achieve a number of goals. The first is to diagnose the condition before any severe symptoms are exhibited. Other goals include control of chest infection, maintenance of adequate nutrition, education of the child and family regarding the condition, and provi- sion of a suitable education for the child.
Management of respiratory disease caused by CF is critical. If respiratory insuffi- ciency can be prevented or minimized, the individual’s life will be greatly enhanced and prolonged. Antibiotic drugs, postural drainage (chest physical therapy), airway clearance systems, and medicated vapors play important roles in the medical management of CF (Alba & Chan, 2007).
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
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Diet management is also essential for children with CF. Generally, children with this condition require more caloric intake than their normal peers. The diet should be high in protein and should be adjusted if a child fails to grow and/or make appropriate weight gains. Individuals with CF benefit significantly from the use of replacement enzymes that assist with food absorption. Also, the intake of vitamins is very important to individuals with digestive system problems.
The major social and psychological problems of children with CF are directly related to chronic coughing, small stature, offensive stools, gas, delayed onset of puberty and secondary sex characteristics, and potentially unsatisfying social relationships. Also, these children and youth may spend significant amounts of time away from school set- tings for aggressive pulmonary and antibiotic therapies (Brady, 2009). Thus teachers, counselors, and other support personnel play essential roles in helping these students feel at home in school, assisting them in making up past-due work, forming friendships, taking medications including enzyme treatments, providing appropriate privacy for rest and coughing episodes, helping other children and youth understand the condition, and receiving other appropriate school-based care (Hazle, 2010). Collaboration between school personnel, parents, and health care providers is essential to the well-being of children and youth with CF. Moreover, support groups play important roles in helping students with CF understand themselves and their disease and develop personal resilience and ongoing friendships.
14-11 Sickle-Cell Disease “Sickle-cell disease (SCD) is a group of inherited red blood cell disorders” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015c). Sickle-cell disease profoundly affects the struc- ture and functioning of red blood cells. The hemoglobin molecule in the red blood cells of individuals with SCD is abnormal in that it is vulnerable to structural collapse when the blood–oxygen level is significantly diminished. As the blood–oxygen level declines, these blood cells become distorted and form bizarre shapes. This process, which is known as sickling, distorts the normal doughnutlike shapes of cells into shapes like microscopic sickle blades. Obstructions in the vessels of affected individuals can lead to stroke and to damage of other organs in the body (see Figure 14.5).
People affected by sickle-cell disease (SCD) may experience unrelenting anemia. In some cases, it is tolerated well; in others, the condition is quite debilitating. Another aspect of SCD involves frequent infections and periodic vascular blockages, which occur as sickled cells block microvascular channels. These blockages can often cause severe and chronic pain in the extremities, abdomen, or back. In addition, the disease may affect any organ system of the body. SCD also has a significant negative effect on the physical growth and development of infants and children.
14-11a Prevalence and Causation About 1 in 12 African Americans is a carrier of the sickle-cell gene. A thousand infants are born with SCD each year. In the United States, 90,000 to 100,000 individuals are impacted by this disease. One in every 36,000 Hispanics is born with SCD (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015d).
Sickle-cell disease is caused by various combinations of genes. A child who receives a mutant S-hemoglobin gene from each parent exhibits SCA to one degree or another. The disease usually announces itself at 6 months of age and persists throughout the indi- vidual’s lifetime.
14-11b Interventions A number of treatments may be employed to deal with the problems caused by sickle-cell disease, but the first step is early diagnosis. Babies—particularly infants who are at risk for this disease—should be screened at birth. Early diagnosis lays the groundwork for the pro- phylactic use of antibiotics to prevent infections in the first five years of life. This treatment, coupled with appropriate immunizations and nutrition, prevents further complications of
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 7 Collaboration
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Anemia A condition in the body where the blood is abnormally low in red blood cells or the red cells do not have enough hemoglobin to carry oxygen from the lungs to the other cells of the body.
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the disease. Moreover, these treatments significantly reduce death rates associated with SCD. One of the primary goals of treatment is the prevention of crises and related sickling episodes.
Children, youth, and adults usually learn to adapt to their disease and lead relatively normal lives. When their lives are interrupted by crises, a variety of treatment approaches can be used. For children, comprehensive and timely care is crucial. For example, children with SCD who develop fevers should be treated aggressively. In fact, parents of these chil- dren may be taught how to examine the spleen and recognize early signs of potentially serious problems. Hydration is also an important component of treatment. Lastly, pain management may be addressed with narcotic and nonnarcotic drugs.
Several factors predispose individuals to SCD crisis: dehydration from fever, reduced liq- uid intake, and hypoxia (a result of breathing air that is poor in oxygen content). Those who have a history of SCD crises should avoid stress, fatigue, and exposure to cold temperatures.
Treatment of crises is generally directed at keeping the individual warm, increasing liq- uid intake, ensuring good blood oxygenation, and administering medication for infection.
Standard 7 Collaboration
Cross-section of sickle cell
Abnormal hemoglobin from strands that cause sickle shape
Sticky sickle cells
A Normal red blood cells
Normal red blood
cells
Sickle cells blocking
blood flow
Flow freely within blood
vessel
Cross-section of red blood cell
Normal hemoglobin
B Abnormal, sickled, red blood cells (sickle cells)
Figure 14.5 Normal and Sickled Red Blood Cells
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Assistance can also be provided during crisis periods by partial-exchange blood transfu- sions with fresh, normal red cells. Transfusions may also be necessary for individuals with SCA who are preparing for surgery or who are pregnant.
Teachers and other care providers may assist with the following: dispensing medi- cations in keeping with school regulations and policies; honoring recommendations for activity restrictions; making referrals to appropriate medical personnel if pain and fever become evident; encouraging affected students to dress warmly during cold weather; and responding immediately in the event of SCA crises. As with all physical and health dis- orders, collaboration and communication among caregivers are key elements of serving children and youth so affected.
14-12 Traumatic Brain Injuries “Traumatic brain injury (TBI), a form of acquired brain injury, occurs when a sudden trauma causes damage to the brain. TBI can result when the head suddenly and violently hits an object, or when an object pierces the skull and enters brain tissue. Symptoms of a TBI can be mild, moderate, or severe, depending on the extent of the damage to the brain” (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2012e). TBI injuries happen, for example, in car accidents when the head hits the windshield and in bicycle accidents when the head hits the ground. The trauma caused by the rapid acceleration or deceleration of the brain may cause the tearing of important nerve fibers in the brain, bruising of the brain itself as it undergoes impact with the skull, brain stem injuries, and swelling of the brain.
Medical professionals describe two types of brain damage, primary and secondary. Primary damage is a direct outcome of the initial impact to the brain. Secondary damage develops over time as the brain responds to the initial trauma. For instance, an adolescent who is hit accidentally with a baseball bat may develop a hematoma, an area of internal bleeding within the brain. This may be the primary damage. However, with the passage of time, the brain’s response to the initial injury may be pervasive swelling, which may cause additional insult and injury to the brain.
In the school context, the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) defines traumatic brain injury as “an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. Traumatic brain injury applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem- solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions; information processing; and speech. Traumatic brain injury does not apply to brain in- juries that are congenital or degenerative, or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma” (U.S. Department of Education, 2006).
Head injures may result in disabilities that adversely and severely affect individu- als’ information processing, social behaviors, memory capacities, reasoning and thinking, speech and language skills, and sensory and motor abilities.
14-12a Prevalence and Causation The statistics associated with traumatic brain injury are sobering. About 2.5 million people sustain TBIs each year. Of this number, about 50,000 individuals die and 280,000 are hospitalized (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015c). About 475,000 TBIs take place with children (0 to 14 years of age). About 80,000 to 90,000 are permanently disabled from their accidents or injuries. About 180 per 100,000 children under age 15 experience a TBI. Of that number, about 5 to 8 percent experience a severe TBI. The rate of TBI caused by sports and recreation-related injuries rose 57 percent in just eight years for children ages 19 or younger (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015c). Also, significant numbers of military personnel, more than 229,000, were diagnosed with a TBI between 2000 and 2011. Tragically, TBI is the signature injury of veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan wars (Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center, 2014).
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 7 Collaboration
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
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It is now estimated that 5.3 million children and adults in the United States are living with the consequences of sustaining a traumatic brain injury. Of all the head injuries that occur, 40 percent involve children. About 2 to 5 percent of the children and youth who experience a TBI develop severe neurologic complications; others develop lasting behavior problems, and over one-third experience lifelong disabilities.
“The single most preventative risk factor is alcohol usage” (Cifu, Kreutzer, Slater, & Taylor, 2007, p. 1,134). If youth and young adults controlled their alcohol consumption, many TBIs would not occur. Additionally, many TBIs could be prevented with proper use of seat belts, air bags, child restraints, and helmets, and securing guns from accidental discharge and misuse by children.
For small children, the most common cause of TBIs is a fall from a short distance. Such children may fall from a tree, playground equipment, their parents’ arms, or furniture. Another major cause of injury in young children is physical abuse. These injuries generally come from shaking or striking infants, which may cause sheering of brain matter or severe bleeding. Common causes of head injuries in older children include falls from playground swings or climbers, bicycles, or trees; blows to the head from baseball bats, balls, or other sports equipment; gunshot wounds; and pedestrian accidents (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015c).
The number of children and others who experience serious head trauma would be significantly reduced if seat belts and other child restraint devices were consistently used. Further reductions in such injuries would be achieved by significantly decreasing accidents due to driving under the influence of alcohol and other mind-altering substances.
Programs directed at reducing the number of individuals who drive while under the influence of alcohol or other substances should be vigorously supported. Likewise, children (and everyone else) should wear helmets when bicycling, skateboarding, skiing, snow- boarding, horseback riding, and similar activities; and should obey safety rules that reduce the probability of serious accidents.
14-12b Interventions Individuals with a TBI present a variety of challenges to families and professionals. The injuries may affect every aspect of an individual’s life (see Figure 14.6 for effects on chil- dren) (Bullough, 2011). The resulting disabilities also have a profound effect on an indi- vidual’s family. Often the injuries radically change the individual’s capacities for learning and making sense of different kinds of incoming information (verbal, written, nonverbal, visual, and so on).
Generally, individuals with a TBI will need services and supports in several areas: cognition, speech and language, social and behavioral skills, as well as physical function- ing. Cognitive problems have an impact on thinking and perception. For example, people who have sustained a brain injury may be unable to remember or retrieve newly learned or processed information. They may be unable to attend or concentrate for appropriate periods of time. Another serious problem is their inability to adjust or respond flexibly to changes in home, school, community, or work environments.
A person with TBI may also struggle with speech, producing unintelligible sounds or indistinguishable words. Speech may be slurred and labored. Individuals with a TBI may know what they want to say, but are unable to express it. Professionals use the term aphasia to describe this condition. Expressive aphasia is an inability to express one’s own thoughts and desires.
Language problems may also be evident. For example, a school-age student may be unable to retrieve a desired word or expression, particularly during a “high-demand” in- structional session or during an anxiety-producing social situation. Given their difficulties with word retrieval, individuals with a TBI may reduce their overall speech output or use repetitive expressions or word substitutions. Many children with a brain injury express great frustration at knowing an answer to a question, but being unable to retrieve it when called on by teachers.
Social and behavioral problems may present the most challenging aspects of TBI. For many individuals, the injury produces significant changes in their personality, their tem- perament, their disposition toward certain activities, and their behaviors. These social
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
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and behavioral problems may worsen over time, depending on the nature of the injury, the preinjury status of the brain, the postinjury adjustment of the individual and family, the person’s age at the time of the injury, and the treatment provided immediately after the injury. Behaviors emanating from a TBI include increased irritability and emotional- ity, compromised motivation and judgment, an inability to restrict socially inappropriate behaviors, insensitivity to others, and low thresholds for frustration and inconvenience.
Neuromotor and physical disabilities are also characteristic of individuals with a TBI. Neuromotor problems may be exhibited through poor eye–hand coordination. For example, an adolescent may be able to pick up a ball, but be unable to throw it to someone else. In addition, a person with a TBI may have impaired balance, an inability to walk unassisted, significantly reduced stamina, or paralysis. Impaired vision and hearing may also be present. The array and extent of the challenges individuals with brain injuries and their families face can be overwhelming and disheartening. However, with appropriate support and coordinated, interdisciplinary treatment, individuals and their families can move forward with their lives and develop effective coping skills.
Standard 4 Assessment
Medical/Neurological Symptoms
● Sensory deficits affecting vision, hearing, taste, smell, or touch
● Decreased motor coordination ● Difficulty breathing ● Dizziness ● Headache ● Impaired balance ● Loss of intellectual capabilities ● Partial to full paralysis ● Poor eye–hand coordination ● Reduced body strength ● Seizure activity (possibly frequent) ● Sleep disorders ● Speech problems (e.g., stuttering, slurring)
Cognitive Symptoms
● Decreased attention ● Decreased organizational skills ● Decreased problem-solving ability ● Difficulties keeping up at school ● Difficulty with abstract reasoning ● Integration problems (e.g., sensory, thought) ● Poor organizational skills ● Memory deficits ● Perceptual problems ● Poor concentration ● Poor judgment ● Rigidity of thought
● Slowed information processing ● Poor short- and long-term memory ● Word-finding difficulty
Behavioral/Emotional Symptoms
● Aggressive behavior ● Denial of deficits ● Depression ● Difficulty accepting and responding to change ● Loss of reduction of inhibitions ● Distractibility ● Feelings of worthlessness ● Flat affect (expressionless, lacking emotion) ● Low frustration level ● Unnecessary or disproportionate guilt ● Helplessness ● Impulsivity ● Inappropriate crying or laughing ● Irritability
Social Skills Development
● Difficulties maintaining relationships with family mem- bers and others
● Inability to restrict socially inappropriate behaviors (e.g., disrobing in public)
● Inappropriate responses to the environment (e.g., over- reactions to light or sound)
● Insensitivity to others’ feelings ● Limited initiation of social interactions ● Social isolation
SOURCE: Adapted from Pierangelo, R., and G. A. Giuliani. (2001). What every teacher should know about students with special needs: Promoting success in the classroom, pp. 98–100. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Copyright © 2001 by R. Pierangelo and G. G. Giuliani. Reprinted by permission.
Figure 14.6 Characteristics of Children with Traumatic Brain Injury
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Like other people with disabilities, individuals with a TBI significantly benefit from systems of care—collaborative/multidisciplinary approaches and interventions that ad- dress unique family and individual needs. Because of the nature and number of the defi- cits that might ensue as a result of a head injury, many specialists must be involved in a coordinated and carefully orchestrated fashion. Early comprehensive care is vital to the long-term, functional recovery of individuals with a TBI.
Furthermore, new medical technologies have revolutionized diagnostic and treatment procedures for TBIs. In previous decades, the vast majority of these individuals died within a short time of their accidents. With the development of computerized tomography (CT) scans, intracranial pressure monitors, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), voxel-based morphometry (VBM), and the capacity to control bleeding and brain swelling, many individuals with traumatic brain injury survive. Also, CT scans and voxel-based mor- phometry of individuals without brain injuries now provide physicians and other health care providers with essential, normative information about the extent of the injury to the brain to compare with the uninjured brains of other individuals of the same age and gender. Voxel-based morphometry is a computational method for measuring differences in local concentrations of brain tissue, through comparisons of multiple brain images from individuals with and without injuries.
Head injuries may be described in terms of the nature of the injury. Injuries include concussions, contusions, skull fractures, and epidural and subdural hemorrhages:
● Concussions. The most common effects of closed-head injuries, concussions occur most frequently in children and adolescents through contact sports such as football, hockey, and martial arts. They are characterized by a temporary loss of conscious- ness with amnesia. Children who display weakness on one side of the body, exhibit a dilated pupil, or experience vomiting may have a concussion and should be examined immediately by a physician.
● Contusions. This kind of injury is characterized by extensive damage to the brain, including laceration of the brain, bleeding, swelling, and bruising. The resulting effect of a brain contusion is intense stupor or coma. Individuals with a contusion should be hospitalized immediately.
● Skull fractures. The consequences of skull fractures depend on the location, nature, and seriousness of the fracture. Unfortunately, some fractures are not easily detect- able through radiologic examination. Injuries to the lower back part of the head are particularly troublesome and difficult to detect. These basilar skull fractures may set the stage for serious infections of the central nervous system. Immediate medi- cal care is essential for skull fractures to determine the extent of the damage and to develop appropriate interventions.
● Epidural and subdural hemorrhages. Hemorrhaging, or bleeding, is the central fea- ture of epidural and subdural hematomas. Hematomas are collections of blood, usu- ally clotted. An epidural hematoma is caused by damage to an artery (a thick-walled blood vessel carrying blood from the heart) between the brain and the skull (see Figure 14.7). If this injury is not treated promptly and appropriately, an affected individual will die. A subdural hematoma is caused by damage to tiny veins that draw blood from the outer layer of the brain (cerebral cortex) to the heart. The ag- gregation of blood between the brain and its outer covering (dura) produces pressure that adversely affects the brain and its functioning (see Figure 14.8). If the subdural bleeding is left untreated, the result can be death.
Medical treatment of TBI proceeds generally in three stages: acute care, rehabilitation, and community integration. During the acute stage, medical personnel focus on maintaining the child’s or youth’s life, treating the swelling and bleeding, minimizing complications, reducing the level of coma, and completing the initial neurologic examination. This stage of treatment is often characterized by strained interactions between physicians and parents. Some physicians are challenged in responding to the overwhelming psychological needs of parents and family members because of the complex medical demands presented by the
Computerized tomography (CT) A method of examining body organs by scanning them with X-rays and using a computer to construct a series of cross-sectional scans of the organs.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) A medical imaging technique used in radiology to visualize internal structures of the body in detail.
Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) A neuroimaging analysis technique that allows investigation of specific areas of brain anatomy.
Skull fractures A break in one or more of the bones in the skull, usually occurring as a result of blunt force trauma.
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14 -12 T R AU M AT I C B R A I N I N J U R I E S 383
Reflections from Soldiers
Many soldiers who return from the Iraq and Afghanistan wars experience mild to severe traumatic brain injuries. At least 15 to 25 percent of returning sol- diers experience mild traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), often characterized by chronic and severe headaches, emo- tional irritability, sleep problems, im- paired cognition, and other challenging health issues. What follows are personal reflections of soldiers about the impact of their brain injuries:
You tell yourself that physical inju- ries always happen to someone else, that it’ll never happen to you. It took a long time for me to come to terms with my injury. (Source: “Physical Injury.” Make the Connection. Re- trieved July 20, 2012 from http:// m a ke th e co nn e c ti o n . n e t /eve nt s /injury.)
I was having trouble seeing. Every- thing was blurry, the headaches were nonstop, … I was confused all the time. All of these were symp- toms of a brain injury—we just didn’t know it yet. (Source: “Effects of Traumatic Brain Injury.” Make the Connection. Retrieved July 20, 2012 from http://maketheconnection.net /conditions/traumatic-brain-injury.)
At times, I wish that my spouse would just “get it” and understand all the things that I am dealing with. What I figured out is that the more honest and up front I am, the more that happens and better things get. We take it one day at a time. (Source: “Family and Relationship.” Make the Connection. Retrieved July 20, 2012 from http://maketheconnection.net /events/family-relationships#1.)
I had a short fuse. If you looked at me the wrong way I’d basically walk up to you and say, “You got an issue?” (Source: “Anger and Ir- ritability.” Make the Connection. Retrieved July 20, 2012 from http:// maketheconnection.net/symptoms /anger-irritability/.)
I’d say that the biggest thing that I had to deal with was frustration. I didn’t know why I was forget- ful all the time or always in a bad mood. I didn’t know that I had a traumatic brain injury. (Source: Make the Connection: What are the mental health-related effects of TBI that I need to be aware of? Retrieved May 6, 2015 from http:// maketheconnection.net/conditions /traumatic-brain-injury)
It’s entirely too easy to get too down, and not want to work on the things to get you back to where you need to be. … (Source: “Matthew James.” Traumatic Brain Injury: The Journey Home. Re- trieved July 20, 2012 from www .traumaticbraininjuryatoz.org/Per- sonal-Journeys/Personal-Journeys /Matthew-James.)
You gotta do your part and it’s hard. You gotta just reach inside and be the soldier or marine that you are, and go forward. (Source: “Michael Welch.” Traumatic Brain Injury: The Journey Home. Retrieved July 20, 2012 from www.traumaticbrain injur yatoz.org/Personal-Journeys /Personal-Journeys/Michael-Welsh.)
… [I]t’s very important early on to be realistic about what you’re fac- ing. But also, find some hope in that
reality. … [D]on’t give up hope. … (Source: “Ted Wade.” Traumatic Brain Injury: The Journey Home. Retrieved July 20, 2012 from www .traumaticbraininjuryatoz.org/Per- sonal-Journeys/Personal-Journeys /Ted-Wade.)
I’ve learned a lot about my own brain over the past years, prob- ably more than the average per- son would ever want to know, but sadly knowing what’s wrong doesn’t help fix it. The only thing that does help is repetition and retraining. I know there are still many things that I have to work on, but thankfully I believe there is still hope. (Source: crlynch.com/: Update January 2008. Retrieved May 6, 2015 from www.crlynch .com/2012page13.html)
Some days I can’t distinguish the PTSD (post-traumatic stress disor- der) from the head injury. … The PTSD can be cured, but the head injury, I don’t know. It’s just going to take time. (Source: “Charlie.” NM Brain Injury Advisory Council. Re- trieved July 20, 2012 from http:// nmbiac.com/stories.html.)
Questions for Reflection
1. If you were a spouse, parent, or sib- ling of a returning soldier with a TBI, what steps would you take to prepare yourself for assisting with the care and treatment of your loved one?
2. What services would you access?
3. How would you inform yourself?
4. Who would be your most reliable information providers?
REFLECT ON THIS
injured child or youth. Other trained personnel—including social workers, psychologists, and clergy—play vital roles in supporting parents and other family members. Again, we see the importance of systems of care where talented professionals work together to achieve optimal outcomes for all concerned.
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If a child, youth, or adult remains in a coma, medical personnel may use special stimulation techniques to reduce the depth of the coma. If the patient with a TBI becomes agitated by stimuli in the hospital unit, such as visitors’ conversations, noises produced by housecleaning staff, obtrusive light, or touching, steps may be taken to control or reduce these problems. As an injured individual comes out of the coma, orienting him or her to the environment becomes a priority. This may include explaining where the patient is located, introducing care providers, indicating where loved ones are, sharing what has happened since the injury, and responding to the individual’s other questions. Many people who have been injured do not remember the accident or the medical inter- ventions administered.
The next stage of treatment is rehabilitation. During this phase, individuals seek to relearn and adequately perform preinjury skills and behaviors. This treatment may take time—often months—and considerable effort. Children and youth are prepared gradually for return to their homes and appropriate school environments. Their families prepare as well, receiving ongoing support and counseling. Additionally, arrangements are also
Temporal area Skull fracture
Epidural space
Dura Dura
(a) A forceful injury occurs in the temporal area of the brain.
(b) The injury may result in a fractured skull, causing bleeding in the middle meningeal artery. Blood collects between the skull and the dura, a rough membrane covering the brain.
(c) As the blood collects, pressure builds on vital structures within the brain.
Figure 14.7 An Epidural Hematoma
Figure 14.8 A Subdural Hematoma
(a) Violently shaking or hitting a child may cause damage to the cerebral cortex.
(b) Trauma to the brain results in the rupturing of small veins.
Dura
Veins
Dura
(c) Blood gathers between the dura and the brain, resulting in pressure on vital brain structures.
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14 -12 T R AU M AT I C B R A I N I N J U R I E S 385
made for appropriate speech/language, physical, and occupational therapies and for any specialized teaching necessary.
Many individuals return to their homes, schools, or employment settings as vastly different people. These differences often take the shape of unpredictable or extreme expressions of emotion. Furthermore, these individuals may have trouble recognizing and accepting their postinjury challenges and deficits.
The last stage of intervention is community reintegration, focusing on providing coun- seling and therapy to help individuals cope with their injuries and their residual effects; helping families maintain the gains that have been achieved; terminating specific head injury services; further developing language facility and skills; seeking disability deter- mination; and referring individuals to community agencies, educational programs, and vocational rehabilitation for additional services as needed.
Educational supports focus on environmental changes that facilitate daily living and address critical transition issues that arise in preparing a child’s or youth’s return to ap- propriate school settings. Communication and collaboration are absolutely essential to the transition from the hospital/care facility to the school environment. Several groups are involved in ensuring that the care and support are optimal: parents and teachers, profes- sionals within the school, and school professionals working with clinical/medical person- nel outside the school. It is essential that educators and health providers work together to blend clinical, educational, and family interventions effectively.
Unfortunately, many children and youth with a TBI leave hospitals or rehabilitation settings without adequate preparation for the demands inherent in returning to home and school environments. Also, many teachers who receive these students are not adequately prepared to respond to their cognitive, academic, and behavioral needs.
Students with traumatic brain injury may return to one of several school placements, depending on their needs. Appropriate teaching activities include establishing high expec- tations, reducing stimuli and conditions that elicit challenging behaviors, using appropriate reductive techniques for stopping or significantly reducing aggressive or noncompliant behaviors, eliminating rewards for negative or problematic behaviors, providing precise feedback, giving students strategies for organizing information, and providing many opportunities for practice.
Educational services are tailored to a student’s specific needs. Efforts are directed at improving students’ general behaviors, such as problem solving, planning, and developing insight. Teaching strategies focus on developing appropriate social behaviors (performing in stressful situations, improving initiative taking, working with others, etc.), building expressive and receptive language skills (word retrieval, event description, understanding instructions, reading nonverbal cues, etc.), and writing skills (sentence development, legibility, etc.; see Figure 14.9). Also, some individuals with a TBI may benefit greatly from assistive technology devices that aid in communication, information processing, learning, and recreation. These technologies help individuals with a TBI and other disabili- ties communicate with others, display what they know, access information, and participate in various learning and recreational activities.
The initial individualized education programs (IEPs) for students with a brain injury should be written for short periods of time, perhaps six to eight weeks. Moreover, these IEPs should be reviewed often to make adjustments based on the progress and growth of students. Often, students improve dramatically in the first year following their injuries. Children and youth with a TBI generally experience the most gains in the first year follow- ing the injury, with little progress made thereafter. Flexibility and responsiveness on the part of teachers and other support staff are essential to the well-being of students with a traumatic brain injury.
For students who want to move on to postsecondary education, interdisciplinary team members may contribute significantly to the transition process. Critical factors include the physical accessibility of the campus, living arrangements, support for academic achievement, social and personal support systems, and career/vocational training and placement.
For students who might find it difficult to continue their schooling after high school, transition planning for employment is essential. Prior to leaving high school, students
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
Standard 7 Collaboration
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Standard 7 Collaboration
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● Study guide or content outline. Students may need an outline to follow so they can antici- pate content.
● Pictures or visual cues. Signals are a good way to alert students that they need to do some- thing differently.
● Systematic verbal rehearsal. Students may have to “practice” a verbal cue and what is ex- pected of them.
● Homework assignment book. All assignments will need to be written down because of poor short-term memory.
● Teach memory strategies. Students may need to learn memory tricks such as mnemonics, pictures, or limericks.
● Scribe or note taker. Classmates may want to take turns taking good notes and having them photocopied at the end of class to give to the student. TBI victims often can listen but cannot take notes and listen at the same time.
● Recognition versus recall. Do not assume, when students recognize information, that they recall how it fits into the big picture. Check for understanding.
● Modify work amounts. Because focusing may be a serious problem, shorten assignments to the minimum necessary. Increase assignments gradually if the students are successful.
● Alternative forms of expression. General statements and satire may go right over their heads. Be very specific and to the point.
● Provide feedback on responses. Always state that an answer is correct or needs more input. The students may not pick up on a smile or nod that would be affirming.
● Classroom aides. It is often necessary to hire a classroom aide to help a student stay on task, organize, and plan homework.
● Assist with confusion. Watch for the confused look. These students are not likely to raise their hands and ask questions.
● Avoid overreactions. These students may ask the same question over and over because of poor short-term memory. Be patient. Repeat as needed.
● Accept inconsistencies in performance. These students may do very well on, say, Tuesday. This raises the bar for expectations. Remember that they may not be able to do this well the rest of the week.
● Routine and schedule. Be prepared for problems if there is a late start, a substitute teacher, early dismissal, or shortened classes. Changes do not come easy to students with a TBI.
● Behavior management strategy. Have a plan in mind for misbehavior. The regular plan may not work well. Preferably, talk with students ahead of time and let them know how you plan to discipline them.
● Simple, concrete language. Use short sentences that are to the point. Try to keep directions down to as few steps as possible.
● Alert to transitions. State that the bell is going to ring in five minutes and that they should begin putting things away in an orderly fashion. It may help to state which class is next.
● Communication book. While students are given time to do homework at the end of class, it would be good to communicate with parents how things are going in class, to note positives, and to discuss areas that need work.
Figure 14.9 Classroom Strategies for Children and Youth with TBI
with a TBI should have skills associated with filling out job applications, interviewing for jobs, and participating in supervised work experiences. State vocational agencies also play key roles in assisting young people with a TBI following high school. They provide services related to aptitude assessment, training opportunities after high school, and trial job placements.
Collaboration and cooperation are the key factors in achieving success with individu- als who have a traumatic brain injury. A great deal can be accomplished when families, students, and care providers come together, engage in appropriate planning, and work collaboratively.
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14 -12 T R AU M AT I C B R A I N I N J U R I E S 387
People with Physical Disabilities and Other Health Disorders
COMMUNITY SUPPORT FOR LIFELONG INCLUSION
Early Childhood Years Tips for Families
● Work closely with medical and other health-related personnel to lessen the overall impact of the disorder or injury over time.
● Become familiar with special services available in your community and re- gion for the disability or disorder.
● Learn about simple applications of behavior modification for use in your home environment by completing a parent training class.
● Seek out appropriate assistance thr- ough advocacy and support groups.
● Pursue family or individual counseling for persistent relationship-centered problems.
● Develop sensible routines and sched- ules for the child or youth.
● Communicate with siblings, friends, and relatives; help them become in- formed about the disability and dis- order and their role in the treatment process.
● Join advocacy and support groups that provide the information and as- sistance you need.
● Do not overprotect your child or youth. Provide boundaries, discipline, re- sponsibility, and encouragement.
Tips for Preschool Teachers
● Communicate and collaborate with parents, special education personnel, and health care providers to develop appropriate expectations, manage- ment, and instruction.
● Watch for abrupt changes in the child’s behavior. If they occur, no- tify parents and other professionals immediately.
● Involve socially sophisticated and sen- sitive peers and other older children in working with a preschooler.
● Become familiar with events that “set off” a child or pose special problems for the child’s involvement.
● Be sure that the physical environ- ment in the classroom lends itself to the needs of children who may have physical or health disorders (e.g., that aisles in the classroom are sufficiently large for the free movement of a wheelchair).
● Use management procedures that promote appropriate independence, give rise to following instructions, and foster appropriate learning.
Tips for Preschool Personnel
● Participate in team meetings with the preschool teacher.
● Communicate frequently with the student’s parents about concerns and promising developments.
● Employ appropriate management strategies used by the parents and the preschool teacher.
● Help other children understand and accept the child with a disability or disorder.
● Become aware of specific needs and potential talents of the child by con- sulting with parents.
● Be sure that other key personnel in the school who interact directly with the child are informed of his or her needs; collaborate in offering the best ser- vices and supports possible.
● Orient all children in your setting to the needs of the child with a disabil- ity or disorder. This could be done by you, the parents or siblings, or other educational personnel in the school. Remember, your behavior toward the child will say more than words will ever convey.
● Be sure to make arrangements for emergency situations. For example, some peers may know exactly what to do if a fellow class member begins to have a seizure or an asthmatic attack. Additionally, classmates should know how they might be helpful in directing and assisting a child during a fire drill or other emergency procedures.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Involve a child with a physical disability or health disorder and his or her family in holiday gatherings.
● Be sensitive to dietary regimens, op- portunities for repositioning, and al- ternative means for communicating if needed.
● Become aware of the things that you may need to do. For example, you may need to learn what to do if a child with insulin-dependent diabetes shows signs of glucose buildup.
● Offer to become educated about the condition and its impact on the child.
● Become familiar with recommended management procedures for direct- ing a child.
● Teach your own children about the dynamics of the condition; help them understand how to react and respond to variations in behavior.
Elementary Years Tips for Families
● Maintain a healthy and ongoing rela- tionship with the care providers who are part of your child’s life.
● Acknowledge their efforts and ex- press appreciation for actions that are particularly helpful to you and your child.
● Continue to be involved with advocacy and support groups.
● Stay informed by subscribing to news- letters and magazines disseminated by advocacy organizations.
● Develop and maintain positive rela- tionships with the people who teach and serve your child within the school setting.
● Remember that the transition back to school and family environments requires very explicit planning and preparation.
● Learn about and use management pro- cedures that promote the child’s well- being, growth, and learning.
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C H A P T E R 14 P H Y S I C A L D I S A B I L I T I E S A N D O T H E R H E A LT H D I S O R D E R S388
● Establish functional routines and schedules for family activities.
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● Be informed and willing to learn about the unique needs of a child or youth with a disability or disorder in your classroom. For example, schedule a conference with the child’s parents before the year begins to talk about medications, prosthetic devices, levels of desired physical activities, and so on.
● Remember that teamwork and coor- dination among caring professionals and parents are essential to a child’s success.
● Use socially competent and mature peers to assist you (e.g., providing tu- toring, physical assistance, social sup- port in recess activities).
● Be sure that plans have been made and practiced for dealing with emergency situations (e.g., some children may need to be carried out of a building or room).
● If the child’s condition is progressive and life-threatening, consult with par- ents and other professionals to pre- pare peers and others for the potential death of the child or youth.
Tips for School Personnel
● Become informed; seek to understand the unique characteristics of a disabil- ity or disorder.
● Seek to understand and use instruc- tional and management approaches that are well suited to a child’s emerg- ing strengths and challenges.
● Use the expertise that is available in the school and school system; collabo- rate with other specialists.
● Take advantage of opportunities to profit from parent training.
● Be sure that all key personnel in the school setting who interact with the child on a regular basis are informed about treatment regimens, dietary requirements, and signs of potentially problematic conditions such as fevers and irritability.
● Meet periodically as professionals to deal with emergent problems,
brainstorm for solutions, and identify suitable actions.
● Institute cross-age tutoring and sup- port. When possible, have a child with a physical or health condition become a tutor.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Adopt an inclusive attitude about fam- ily and neighborhood events; invite the child or youth to join in family- centered activities, picnics, and holi- day events.
● Learn how to respond effectively and confidently to the common problems that the child or youth may present.
● Communicate concerns and problems immediately to parents in a compas- sionate and caring fashion.
● Provide parents with respite care.
Secondary and Transition Years Tips for Families
● Work closely with school and adult ser- vices personnel in developing transi- tion plans.
● Develop a thoughtful and comprehen- sive transition plan that includes edu- cation, employment, housing, and use of leisure time.
● Become aware of all the services and resources that are available through state and national adult services programs.
● Remember that for some individuals with physical or health disabilities, the secondary or young adult years may be the most trying, particularly if the student’s condition is progressive in nature.
● Begin planning early in the secondary school years for the youth’s transition from the public school to the adult world (schooling, work, transporta- tion, independent living, etc.).
● Be sure that you are well informed about the adult services offered in your community and state.
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● Be sure that appropriate steps have been taken to prepare the youth to
return to school, work, and related activities.
● Work closely with members of the mul- tidisciplinary team in developing ap- propriate schooling and employment experiences.
● Report any subtle changes in behavior immediately to parents and other spe- cialists within the school.
● Continue to be aware of the poten- tial needs for accommodation and adjustment.
● Treat the individual as an adult. ● Realize that the youth’s studies or work
experiences may be interrupted from time to time for specialized or regular medical treatments or other important health care services.
Tips for School Personnel
● Determine what environmental chan- ges need to be made.
● Employ teaching procedures that best fit the youth’s current cognitive status, attention deficits, physical function- ing, and academic achievement.
● Be prepared for anger, depression, and rebellion in some youth with a TBI.
● Focus on the youth’s current and emerging strengths.
● Acknowledge individuals by name, be- come familiar with their interests and hobbies, joke with them occasionally, and involve them in meaningful activi- ties such as fund-raisers, community service projects, and decorating for various school events.
● Provide opportunities for all students to receive recognition and be involved in school-related activities.
● Realize that peer assistance and tu- toring may be particularly helpful to certain students. Social involvement outside the school setting should be encouraged (e.g., going to movies, at- tending concerts, etc.).
● Use members of the multidisciplinary team to help with unique problems that surface from time to time. For ex- ample, you may want to talk with spe- cial educators about management or instructional ideas that may improve a given child’s behavior and academic performance in your classroom.
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14 -13 AT T E N T I O N D E F I C I T/ H Y P E R A C T I V I T Y D I S O R D E R 389
14-13 Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common mental disor- ders in children and adolescents. Symptoms include difficulty staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and very high levels of activity (Goldstein, 2011).
“Studies show that the number of children being diagnosed with ADHD is increasing, but it is unclear why” (National Institute of Mental Health, 2012b). ADHD often persists into adulthood, requiring treatment and attention throughout the adult years (Barkley, 2006a; National Institute of Mental Health, 2008; Willcutt, 2012). Examine the attendant definition of ADHD found in Figure 14.10.
Children with ADHD—especially boys—often evidence problems in developing school- related academic skills and in achieving satisfactory behavior/emotional adjustment (Daley & Birchwood, 2010). They frequently experience significant challenges with grade retention, expulsions, and suspensions. Left untreated as children and youth, adults with ADHD may encounter serious problems, many related to drug abuse, criminality, and unsatisfac- tory relationships with others (Barkley, 2006b; Frodl, 2010; Froehlich, Lanphear, Epstein, Barbaresi, Katusic, & Kahn, 2010; Glass, Flory, Martin, & Hankin, 2011; Wilens, et al., 2011).
Three different types of ADHD have been proposed:
● Predominantly inattentive type: It is hard for these individuals to organize or finish a task, to pay attention to details, or to follow instructions or conversations. These people are easily distracted or forget details of daily routines.
● Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type: These people fidget and talk a lot. It is hard to sit still for long (e.g., for a meal or while doing homework). Smaller children may run, jump, or climb constantly. Individuals feel restless and have trouble with im- pulsivity. Someone who is impulsive may interrupt others a lot, grab things from people, or speak at inappropriate times. It is hard for these people to wait their turn or listen to directions. People with impulsiveness may have more accidents and injuries than others.
● Combined type: Symptoms of the previous two types are equally present in these people. (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012b)
There is not a single test for ADHD. Licensed professionals collect information about the child, youth, or adult using a variety of approaches, each tailored to the respective age
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Standard 4 Assessment
Tips for Neighbors, Friends, and Potential Employers
● Involve the youth in appropriate fam- ily, neighborhood, and community activities, particularly youth activities.
● Become informed about the youth’s capacities and interests.
● Provide employment explorations and part-time employment.
● Be aware of assistance that you might provide in the event of a youth’s grad- ual deterioration or death.
● Encourage your own teens to volun- teer as peer tutors or job coaches.
Adult Years Tips for Families
● Begin developing appropriate inde- pendence skills throughout the school years.
● Determine early what steps can be taken to prepare the youth for mean- ingful part-time or full-time employ- ment, or postsecondary training.
● Become thoroughly familiar with post- secondary educational opportunities and adult services for individuals with disabilities.
● Explore various living and housing options early in the youth’s secondary school years.
● Work with adult service personnel and advocacy organizations in lining up appropriate housing and related sup- port services.
● Know your rights and how you can qualify your son or daughter for edu- cational or other support services.
Tips for Neighbors, Friends, and Employers
● Create opportunities for the adult to be involved in age-relevant activities, including movies, sports events, going out to dinner, and so on.
● Be sure to regularly provide peo – ple with a physical disabilit y or health disorder specif ic informa – tion, recognition, and feedback about their work per formance. Feedback may include candid com – ments about their punc tualit y, rate of work completion, and social in – terac tion with others. Withholding information, not making reasonable adjustments, and not expec ting these individuals to be responsible for their behaviors are great disser- vices to them.
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C H A P T E R 14 P H Y S I C A L D I S A B I L I T I E S A N D O T H E R H E A LT H D I S O R D E R S390
Figure 14.10 Diagnostic Criteria for Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
A. Either (1) or (2): 1. Six (or more) of the following symptoms of inattention have persisted for at least six months to a degree that is maladaptive
and inconsistent with developmental level:
Inattention
a. Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, work, or other activities
b. Often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities
c. Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly
d. Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (not due to oppositional behavior or failure to understand instructions)
e. Often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities
f. Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental effort (such as schoolwork or homework)
g. Often loses things necessary for tasks or activities (e.g., toys, school assignments, pencils, books, or tools)
h. Is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli
i. Is often forgetful in daily activities
2. Six (or more) of the following symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity have persisted for at least six months to a degree that is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental level:
Hyperactivity
a. Often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat
b. Often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected
c. Often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate (in adolescents or adults, may be limited to subjective feelings or restlessness)
d. Often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly
e. Is often “on the go” or often acts as if “driven by a motor”
f. Often talks excessively
Impulsivity
g. Often blurts out answers before questions have been completed
h. Often has difficulty awaiting turn
i. Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations or games)
B. Some hyperactive-impulsive or inattentive symptoms that caused impairment were present before age 7 years.
C. Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms are present in two or more settings (e.g., at school [or work] and at home).
D. There must be clear evidence of clinically significant impairment in social, academic, or occupational functioning.
E. The symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of a pervasive developmental disorder, schizophrenia, or other psy- chotic disorder and are not better accounted for by another mental disorder (e.g., mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, or a personality disorder).
Code based on type: Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, combined presentation: if both Criteria A1 and A2 are met for the past six months Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, predominantly inattentive presentation: if Criterion A1 is met but Criterion A2 is not met for the past six months Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation: if Criterion A2 is met but Criterion A1 is not met for the past six months Coding note: For individuals (especially adolescents and adults) who currently have symptoms that no longer meet full criteria, “In Partial Remission” should be specified.
SOURCE: Reprinted with permission from American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed. Copyright 2013 American Psychiatric Association.
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groups and settings in which the behaviors may occur, carefully determining their frequency, function, and impact on the affected individual. These might include behavior rating scales, ongoing structured observations, and diagnostic interviews with individuals who know the child or youth well—parents, coaches, babysitters, and others (Batstra, Nieweg, Pijl, Van Tol, & Dadders-Algra, 2014; DuPaul & Kern, 2011a; Efron & Sciberras, 2010).
14-13a Prevalence and Causation The prevalence of ADHD has increased dramatically in the United States. Whereas an estimated 7.8 percent of children were diagnosed in 2003, numbers from 2011 indicate 11 percent of school-age children have the condition, although there is significant variance between states (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014a). Obviously, many “normal” children evidence mild features of the disorder, but are not diagnosed as such. About two and one half times as many boys as girls have ever been diagnosed with ADHD (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014c). However, the presenting symptoms in both boys and girls are very similar (Barkley, 2006c).
ADHD is presumed to be a function of a central nervous system disorder. Also, ADHD can co-occur with other disorders, including intellectual disabilities, sensory impairments, and serious emotional and behavior disorders (Harty, Miller, Newcorn, & Halperin, 2009; Selekman, 2010; Thorell & Rydell, 2008; Youngstrom, Arnold, & Frazier, 2010).
The exact causes and precise factors that give rise to ADHD remain unclear. However, there is a clear relationship between ADHD and genetic/environmental factors (Nikolas & Burt, 2011). “Genetic research strongly supports the role of genetic risk factors in ADHD” (Schachar, 2014, p. 46).
In this regard, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is helping researchers uncover some of the neurological factors associated with ADHD. Some children with ADHD appear to be wired differently than their same-age peers without the condition. In some children with ADHD, their brain development follows a normal path of development but progresses in a delayed fashion. This delay in development on average is generally three years behind children without the disorder (National Institute of Mental Health, 2012a).
14-13b Interventions Treatments and interventions for individuals with ADHD are centered on reducing symp- toms and improving everyday functioning in home, classroom, social, and work settings. ADHD requires multiple interventions that fall into two broad categories: behavioral and medical. As is true in many disability areas, effective treatment involves a multidisciplinary team approach and includes combinations of techniques as determined by individual needs (Pugach & Winn, 2011; Reid & Johnson, 2011; Williamson & McLeskey, 2011).
Controlling hyperactive and impulsive behavior in children appears to be most effec- tively accomplished with medication (often methylphenidate or Ritalin) (Barbaresi, 2014; Ryan, Katsiyannis, & Hughes, 2011). Evidence is emerging that pharmacological control of behavioral challenges is more effective than nonmedical interventions, such as behav- ioral treatment (Powell, Thomsen, & Frydenberg, 2011; Ryan, Katsiyannis, & Hughes, 2011; Stroh, Frankenberger, Cornell-Swanson, Wood, & Pahl, 2008; Vaughan, Roberts, & Needelman, 2009). Research supporting the effectiveness of medication is accumulating, but such medical intervention shows no effect, or very limited influence, on academic performance (DuPaul & Kern, 2011b; Graziano, Geffken, & Lall, 2011; Hale et al., 2011). Current thinking suggests that even though there are clear benefits to the use of medication, it may be overprescribed; side effects and issues of potential abuse need further research (Frodl, 2010; Kalikow, 2011; Lee, Humphreys, Flory, Liu, & Glass, 2011).
Some researchers advise caution in the use of psychostimulants for both theoretical and practical reasons. First, there are concerns regarding side effects, as one would expect. In some cases, it is difficult to distinguish psychological characteristics that may appear to be side effects (such as increased anxiety) from the symptoms of ADHD itself. Additionally, some researchers express uneasiness about appropriate dosage, overprescription, and un- healthy side effects such as increased tobacco and alcohol use. There are also matters of po- tential for abuse and issues related to management planning and implementation for children being treated with medication (Comstock, 2011; Rabiner, Anastopoulos, & Costello, 2010).
Standard 2 Learning Environments
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Children who are young when they begin to receive medication may take it over a very long period; however, it is unclear what the cumulative effects may be on physical or intel- lectual development (van de Loo-Neus, Rommelse, & Buitelaar, 2011). For preschoolers, there is some evidence that susceptibility to side effects might be greater (DuPaul & Kern, 2011b; Posey, Bassin, & Lewis, 2009). Further investigation in both these areas is certainly warranted. Concerns about medication interventions have been raised in the popular press and continue to arise periodically as the field grapples with the challenges these children and youth present (Higgens, 2009; Shute, 2009).
The hyperactive and impulsive behaviors of many children with ADHD clearly present a significant challenge to parents, teachers, and other school personnel during the elementary school years. Elementary teachers describe these children as fidgety, impulsive, often off-task, and constantly disruptive (DuPaul, Weyandt, & Janusis, 2011; National Institute of Mental Health, 2008). These behaviors are often accompanied by deficits in academic performance (Bussing, Porter, Zima, Mason, Garvan, & Reid, 2012; McConaughy, Volpe, & Antshel, 2011).
Nonmedical, school-based interventions can also be effective in improving the classroom behaviors of elementary-age school children with ADHD. In general, targeted behavior modi- fication strategies appear to be more effective for controlling behavioral problems than those that involve cognitive-behavioral or cognitive interventions. Cognitive-behavioral therapies are based on combining behavioral techniques with efforts to change the way a person thinks about his or her behaviors. Research evidence suggests limited beneficial results from cognitive-behavioral interventions for children with ADHD (Levine & Anshel, 2011).
Educators should arrange the classroom setting to enhance the child’s ability to re- spond, attend, and behave in a manner that is conducive to learning. Teachers may have to monitor the directions they give students with ADHD, often cuing them to the fact that a direction or message is about to be delivered. This might be done with a prompt such as “Listen, John” or some other signal that the teacher is comfortable making and is well understood by the student as meaning a directive is to follow (Fowler, 2010; Geng, 2011).
Student learning is enhanced by strategies that involve considerable structure (Reid & Johnson, 2011). Instruction, such as writing lessons, may be more effective if reinforcement is combined with modeling and increased practice (Browder & Spooner, 2011; Hedin, Mason, & Gaffney, 2011). These children often require individualized instruction from a teacher or aide, focused on the specific content area needing attention, such as reading, math, or spelling (Riley, McKevitt, Shriver, & Allen, 2011; van Kraayenoord, Miller, & Moni, 2009).
Multiple treatment approaches (often termed multimodal treatments), such as drug and behavior therapies, are more effective than just one kind of treatment for children with ADHD (Beljan, Bree, Reuter, Reuter, & Wingers, 2014; Owens & Fabiano, 2011; Springer & Reddy, 2010). This is important in the case of children with ADHD, because a high proportion receive both medical treatment and school-based instruction. All collaborating parties must pay special attention to facilitating communication among physicians and others providing treatment.
14-13c Adolescence and Adulthood Once viewed as a childhood condition, ADHD is now known to have a significant presence beyond those early years and is accompanied by an array of other behaviors and condi- tions in adolescence and adulthood (Bussing, Mason, & Bell, 2010; Elkins, Malone, Keyes, Iacono, & McGue, 2011; Mao, Babcock, & Brams, 2011; Taylor, Deb, & Unwin, 2011). These include social impairments, greater number of driving-related problems (license suspen- sions, accidents, and traffic citations), continuing academic challenges, underachievement in work settings, presence of other psychiatric conditions, and inhibition/self-control is- sues (Barkley, 2006b; Kent et al., 2011). Current research suggests that ADHD is far more persistent into adulthood than once was thought; it often requires continuing treatment (Cahill, Coolidge, Segal, Klebe, Marle, & Overmann, 2012; Sprich, Knouse, & Cooper-Vince, 2010). Interventions appropriate for adolescents and adults with ADHD must be reassessed, and where appropriate, modified in an age-appropriate manner (Kraft, 2010; Mao, Babcock, and Brams, 2011; Mitchell, Robertson, Kimbrel, & Nelson-Gray, 2011). However, cognitive challenges such as the impulse control and memory problems found in children with ADHD occur in many adults with ADHD as well (Mitchell et al., 2011; Storm & White, 2010). Further,
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medication remains an effective treatment for the impulsivity and difficulty in focusing on tasks that continue into the adolescent and adult years for many people with ADHD.
Adolescents and adults with ADHD may not exhibit hyperactivity but may still have considerable difficulty in focusing on tasks, controlling impulses, and using appropriate social skills. Again, medication may be an effective treatment for some of these behaviors as many of the adult/adolescent-prescribed medications enhance the individuals’ execu- tive function of the brain—the brain’s capacity to help adolescents or adults manage and control their behavior and impulses (National Resource Center on ADHD, 2012). There is still much to be learned about the treatment of adults with ADHD. Future research will help us understand the salient aspects of treatment and how they play out in managing the symptoms of ADHD and achieving worthwhile long-term outcomes for adolescents and adults with this disorder.
Looking Toward a Bright Future This is so much to be positive about in considering the future for children, youth, and indi- viduals with physical disabilities and health disorders. Consider for a moment the comments made by young Michael Anwar, cited at the outset of the chapter, when he wrote “I have cerebral palsy … it doesn’t have me!” Michael is proof positive that caring professionals can help children and youth respond with more resilience and optimism in coping with their conditions and grow in uniquely positive ways throughout their lives.
Some of our greatest causes for hope center on medical advances in gene therapies, stem cell research, uniquely person-specific medications, early treatment procedures, and highly innovative surgical techniques—too many to describe in great detail. Also, we are benefiting from the talents and skills of highly creative engineers and inventors who are developing new orthotics, highly functional assistive and augmentative devices, artificial limbs, exoskeletons, home and office control systems, and robotics.
Finally, we are becoming more inclusive, spontaneous, and caring in our responses to individuals with physical disabilities, disorders, and injuries—much in part because they are now so much a natural part of all of our daily experiences in our neighborhoods, schools, and communities. We know them. They have been in our classrooms. We feel more comfortable around them because of our own face-to-face interactions with them, their families, and their unique talents and capacities.
14-1 Describe how the lives of people with physical disabilities and other health disorders have changed since the advent of IDEA.
● Technologies, inventions, and developments in many fields are improving the lives of young people and adults with physical disabilities and other health disorders.
● Developments in assistive technologies, stem cell research, person-specific medications, advanced surgical techniques, transplants, gene therapies, and other preventative and early therapies have and will continue to have lasting and positive impacts on infants, children, youth, and adults with physical disorders.
● Health disorders cause individuals to have limited strength, vitality, or alertness, due to chronic or acute health problems.
● Optimism for people with health disorders centers on produc- ing new person-specific medications, gene therapies, assistive devices, new surgical procedures, and a host of other inventions.
14-2 Describe cerebral palsy, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
● Cerebral palsy (CP) is a neuromuscular disorder caused by dam- age to one or more specific areas of the brain that affects muscle coordination and body movement.
● About 764,000 individuals in the United States display clinical features of CP.
● The fundamental causes of CP are insults to the brain. ● Early and ongoing interventions and therapies center on the child’s movement, social and emotional development, learning, language, speech, and hearing.
Chapter Review
C H A P T E R R E V I E W
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14-3 Describe spina bifida, its prevalence, causa- tion, and related interventions.
● Spina bifida (SB) is a collective term for malformations of the spinal cord. SB is the most common neural tube defect.
● SB occurs in about 1 in 1,500 births. ● The exact cause of SB is unknown. There is a slight tendency for it to run in families, and it is possible that certain medications or toxic substances ingested by the mother may be responsible. Folic acid deficiency is implicated.
● Physical therapy plays a critical role in intervention. Education programs and school care requirements vary according to the needs of each student.
14-4 Describe spinal cord injury, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
● “Spinal cord injury (SCI) is damage to the spinal cord that results in a loss of function such as mobility or feeling. Frequent causes of damage are trauma (car accident, gunshot, falls, etc.) or dis- ease (polio, spina bifida, Friedreich’s ataxia, etc.).
● About 450,000 individuals live with an SCI in the United States. SCIs result from any number of types of falls or other causes of trauma to the spinal cord.
● SCI patients are first treated for shock and then immobilized to prevent movement and possible further damage.
● Medical treatment is often lengthy and tedious. Relieving pain is a significant challenge over the lifespan of individuals with an SCI.
14-5 Describe muscular dystrophy, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
● The muscular dystrophies (MD) are a group of more than 30 genetic diseases. MDs are characterized by weakness and degeneration of the skeletal muscles that control movement. MDs are progressive disorders.
● About 200,000 Americans have MD. Some forms of MD are seen in infancy or childhood, whereas others may not appear until middle age or later.
● MD is caused by abnormalities wherein muscle protein genes are missing or lacking sufficient dystrophin.
● There is no known cure for muscular dystrophy. Treatments focus on maintaining or improving individuals’ functioning and pre- serving their ambulatory independence for as long as possible.
14-6 Describe AIDS, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
● Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a set of symp- toms and infections in individuals resulting from the specific injury to the immune system caused by infection with the hu- man immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
● About 1.2 million people in the United States have HIV. About 50,000 become infected each year, including nearly 2,300 adolescents.
● HIV is passed from one person to another through various means, including the exchange of bodily fluids, usually semen or vaginal secretions; blood exchange through injection drug use (IDU); and exchange through blood transfusions, perinatal contact, and breast milk.
● To date, there is no known cure for AIDS. The best cure for AIDS in children and youth is prevention. Treatment is generally pro- vided by an interdisciplinary team composed of medical, edu- cational, and health care professionals.
14-7 Describe asthma, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
● Asthma is evidenced by swelling and inflammation of the air passages that transport air from the mouth and nose to the lungs. This swelling within the affected passages causes them to narrow, thus limiting the air entering and exiting the individual.
● Nearly one in ten children in the United States is affected by asthma.
● Asthma is an inherited condition that must be triggered to dis- play. Triggers vary greatly across children, youth, and adults.
● Interventions include increasing the anti-inflammatory medi- cation in advance of anticipated exposure to certain triggers, using appropriate bronchodilators for much the same purpose, and limiting the time of exposure to potential or known triggers.
14-8 Describe epilepsy, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
● Epilepsy is a seizure disorder in which the normal pattern of neuronal activity becomes disturbed. Epilepsy may cause ab- normal sensations, emotions, and behavior, convulsions, muscle spasms, and loss of consciousness.
● Epilepsy affects approximately 468,000 children age 17 and younger in the United States.
● Epilepsy and other seizure disorders can be caused by perinatal factors, tumors of the brain, complications of head trauma, infec- tions of the central nervous system, vascular diseases, alcohol- ism, infection, maternal injury or infection, and genetic factors.
● The treatment of seizure disorders involves careful medical in- vestigation and then prescription and management of drugs. Other treatments for seizure disorders include surgery, stress management, a vagus nerve stimulator (an electronic device designed to prevent seizures by sending small bursts of electri- cal energy to the brain), brain infusion of the chemical muscimol into affected areas of the brain, and diet modifications.
14-9 Describe diabetes, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
● Diabetes mellitus is a developmental or hereditary disorder char- acterized by inadequate secretion or use of insulin, a substance that is produced by the pancreas and used to process carbohy- drates. The two types of diabetes are type 1, insulin-dependent or juvenile-onset, and type 2, noninsulin-dependent or adult-onset.
● Approximately 21 million Americans have been diagnosed with diabetes and up to eight million are undiagnosed.
● A combination of genetic dispositions and environmental triggers and conditions cause type 1 diabetes, but the exact variables are unclear. Individuals who develop type 2 diabetes incrementally create conditions in their body in which their cells become unresponsive to the effects of insulin.
● Medical treatment centers on the regular administration of insulin for children and youth with juvenile diabetes.
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14-10 Describe cystic fibrosis, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
● Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited chronic disease in which a defective gene and its protein product cause the body to pro- duce unusually thick, sticky mucus that clogs the lungs and leads to life-threatening lung infections, and obstructs the pan- creas and stops natural enzymes from helping the body break down and absorb food.
● In the United States, about 30,000 children and adults have CF. ● CF is genetically transmitted and manifests in children who have the defective gene from both parents.
● Interventions for CF include consistent and appropriate applica- tion of the medical, social, educational, and psychological com- ponents of treatment to enable individuals to live longer and with less discomfort and fewer complications than in years past.
14-11 Describe sickle-cell disease, its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
● Sickle-cell disease (SCD) is a group of inherited red blood cell disorders that profoundly affects the structure and functioning of red blood cells.
● SCD affects from 90,000 to 100,000 people in the United States. ● Sickle-cell disease is caused by various combinations of genes. A child who receives a mutant S-hemoglobin gene from each parent exhibits SCD to one degree or another. The disease usu- ally announces itself at 6 months of age and persists throughout the individual’s lifetime.
● SCD in the first five years of life is treated with antibiotics. The disease is then managed through immunizations, nutrition, hydration, and pain relief.
14-12 Describe traumatic brain injury, its preva- lence, causation, and related interventions.
● Traumatic brain injury (TBI) results in open- or closed-head in- juries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as
cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions; infor- mation processing; and speech.
● About 2.5 million people sustain a TBI each year; about 475,000 TBIs happen to children from birth to age 14 and account for 40 percent of all head injuries.
● TBI occurs when a sudden trauma causes damage to the brain. TBI can result when the head suddenly and violently hits an ob- ject, or when an object pierces the skull and enters brain tissue.
● Individuals with a TBI can receive services and supports in cogni- tion, speech and language, social and behavioral skills, as well as physical functioning, according to individual need.
14-13 Describe attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), its prevalence, causation, and related interventions.
● Symptoms of ADHD include difficulty staying focused and pay- ing attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and very high lev- els of activity. Children with ADHD—especially boys—often evidence problems in developing school-related academic skills and in achieving satisfactory behavior/emotional adjustment.
● About 11 percent of school-aged children are diagnosed with ADHD; about two and one half times as many boys as girls.
● The causes of ADHD remain unclear. However, there is a clear re- lationship between ADHD and genetic/environmental factors.
● ADHD requires multiple interventions that fall into two broad categories: behavioral and medical. Effective treatment involves a multidisciplinary team approach and includes combinations of techniques as determined by individual needs. Hyperac- tive behavior can sometimes be controlled with medication; nonmedical interventions center on behavioral therapies. Combinations of medication and behavioral therapies can also be effective.
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Standards to Accompany Chapter 14
If you are thinking about a career in special education, you should know that many states use national standards developed by the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) to assess a teacher candidate’s knowledge and skills for working with students with disabilities. See a complete listing of the seven CEC Content Standards on the inside cover of this text.
1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
2 Learning Environments 4 Assessment 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies 7 Collaboration
Mastery Activities and Assignments To master the content within this chapter, complete the following activities and assignments: 1. Complete a written test of the chapter’s content. If your
instructor requires a written test of your content knowl- edge for this chapter, keep a copy for your portfolio.
2. Review the Case Study on Embracing Diversity, “Sarah and the ‘Pump’,” and respond in writing to the
Application Questions. Keep a copy of the Case Study and your written response for your portfolio.
3. Participate in a community service learning activity. Community service is a valuable way to enhance your learning experience. Develop a reflective journal of the service learning experience for your portfolio.
C H A P T E R R E V I E W
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CHAPTER 15
Gifted, Creative, and Talented
Learning Objectives After you complete this chapter, you will be able to:
15-1 Describe how the lives of people who are gifted, creative, and talented have changed since the advent of IDEA.
15-2 Explain the various definitions and classifications of gifted, creative, and talented.
15-3 Describe the characteristics and prevalence of children and youth who are gifted, creative, and talented.
15-4 List the causes associated with gifts and talents.
15-5 Describe the assessment procedures used to identify gifts and talents in children and youth.
15-6 Describe the different interventions for children and youth with gifts and talents from early childhood through adulthood.
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PART 4 ● Exceptional Gifts and Talents
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SNAPSHOT Natalie: Reflections of a Very Talented Communicator and Community Builder
Natalie grew up in a large family and struggled to find her own identity. She already had a sibling who was a gifted artist, another who was a tal- ented musician, another who was a beauty queen, and still another who was a scholar. She possessed native abilities and motivation to succeed, but finding a strong sense of identity proved difficult in a crowded field.
One thing Natalie clearly excelled at was athletics. Her natural-born eye–hand coordination coupled with a household filled with seven broth- ers provided ample opportunities for her to play basketball in the family gym (really an enclosed garage with 6-foot-high basketball hoops at each end) and touch football in the back- yard. Unfortunately, Natalie grew up before women realized the benefit of equal opportunity in public school athletics (Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972). All of her sports’ heroes were men, which was not helpful and discouraged her from pursuing athletics. Even worse, be- ing a tomboy was not a compliment in many settings. Natalie declined to play school-sanctioned sports in high school and often hid her athletic talents, even letting her older brother win when they played one-on-one basketball (she still doesn’t confess this to him!).
Natalie still remembers the mo- ment when, while attending the 1999 Women’s FIFA World Cup soc- cer match final (China versus USA) at the Rose Bowl, she saw a young boy wearing a Mia Hamm jersey. It
was a profound reminder of how far society has progressed in appreciat- ing women’s natural abilities and how everything works out in the end.
With athletics proving to be a dead end and a family setting that did not lend itself easily to finding her way, Natalie turned inward. Over many years she watched and learned. She learned she had a strong preference for cooperation instead of competi- tion, harmony instead of discord. She learned that human kindness is a foundational virtue that should guide all human interactions. She learned not to feel a sense of entitlement, but rather to value a simpler life—the peace that comes from nature, a mod- est living environment, and deeply fulfilling personal relationships. She learned to place a high value on au- thenticity, civility, humility, patience, gratitude, and balance—attributes that would guide her later in life. She developed a strong sense of inner worth and personal identity … not from how others viewed her, but from how she viewed herself and what she knew to be true and right.
During her college years, Natalie’s intellect, knack for team sports, and hard-earned emotional intelligence began to pay off. She thrived in her economics coursework. She played soccer for her college team and won multi-state competitions. More im- portantly, she continued to develop the personality attributes that she had developed in her youth and that are rewarded in the professional work environment. She finished
undergraduate and graduate degrees in economics and began working in a governor’s office as an economist.
It is in the professional work set- ting where the lessons learned grow- ing up in a challenging, competitive, and even discriminatory environment began to blossom. Natalie’s innate giftedness in language, computa- tion, and relationship building joined with her emotional maturity to form a powerful combination, particularly in positions close to power where poise, confidence, and humility are at a premium. Natalie served under three different governors, rising to become the governor’s director of policy and communications spokesperson. Most people do either public policy or com- munications; Natalie thrived at both and became a trusted senior adviser to a governor.
Later she was asked to serve as a political appointee in President George W. Bush’s administration. Once again putting her technical ver- satility, gift for language, and ability to use emotional information to guide her thinking and behavior, Natalie oversaw the media operations for an entire federal agency and then served as a counselor to the secretary of the largest federal department. Today she serves as an associate dean of a nationally ranked business school and writes monthly columns for her city’s daily newspaper and business magazine. Natalie continues to live modestly and spends her time build- ing community and promoting civil society.
The terms gifted, creative, and talented are associated with children, youth, and adults who have extraordinary abilities in one or more areas of performance. Some believe that gifts and talents are overrated—that outstanding performance in most endeavors comes from consistent and deliberate practice (Colvin, 2008). What do you think? What really gives rise to individuals like Natalie—the talented musician and academic?
The gifted, creative, and talented are a diverse array of individuals. Intellectual prowess exhibited by Confucius, Plato, al-Biruni, Isaac Newton, and Maryam Mirzakhani; timeless
G I F T E D, C R E AT I V E , A N D TA L E N T E D
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creative works by Jochi, Michelangelo, Dostoyevsky, Rabindranath Tagore, and Maya Angelou; and the remarkable talents of Johann Bach, George Eliot, Dai Ailian, Margaret Court, and Gustavo Dudamel are testaments to achievements beyond the norm. Because of their unusual abilities and skills, educators and policy makers frequently assume that gifted individuals will reach their full potential without any specialized programs or targeted encouragement.
15-1 A Changing Era in the Lives of People Who Are Gifted, Creative, and Talented For years, behavioral scientists described children and youth with exceptionally high in- telligence as being gifted. Only recently have researchers and practitioners included the adjectives creative and talented, to suggest domains of performance other than those measured by traditional intelligence tests. Now more than ever, children, youth, and adults with remarkable talents or creative capacities are being identified for participation in pro- grams designed to encourage and nourish their gifts and capacities. No longer are gifted programs solely targeted at those with high IQs. Obviously, not all individuals who achieve high scores on intelligence tests are creative or talented. Capacities associated with cre- ativity include elaboration (the ability to embellish or enrich an idea), transformation (the ability to construct new meanings or change an idea into something new and novel), and visualization (the capacity to manipulate ideas or see images mentally) (Sternberg, Jarvin, & Grigorenko, 2011). Individuals who are talented may display extraordinary skills in math- ematics, sports, music, or other performance areas (Sternberg, 2006; Treffinger, 2004). “A child [or individual] may demonstrate gifted behavior at one point in development, but not necessarily at another point in development or may exhibit gifted behavior in one domain, but not necessarily across all domains …” (Horowitz, 2009, p. 9). Some individuals soar to exceptional heights in a talent domain, others achieve in intellectual areas, and still others excel in creative endeavors. A select few exhibit remarkable achievement across several domains like Natalie featured in our opening Snapshot.
15-1a Historical Developments Definitions that describe the unusually able in terms of intelligence quotients and cre- ativity measures are recent phenomena. Not until the beginning of the 20th century was there a suitable method for potentially quantifying or measuring the human attribute of intelligence. The breakthrough occurred in Europe when Alfred Binet, a French psycholo- gist, constructed the first developmental assessment scale for children in the early 1900s. This scale was created by observing children at various ages to identify specific tasks that ordinary children were able to perform at each age. These tasks were then sequenced ac- cording to age-appropriate levels. Children who could perform tasks well above that which was normal for their chronological age were identified as being developmentally advanced.
Binet and Simon (1905; 1908) developed the notion of mental age. The mental age of a child was derived by matching the tasks (memory, vocabulary, mathematical, and compre- hension, etc.) that a child was able to perform according to the age scale (which gave the typi- cal performance of children at various stages). Although this scale was initially developed and used to identify children with mental retardation in the Parisian schools, it eventually became an important means for identifying those who had higher-than-average mental ages as well.
Lewis M. Terman, an American educator and psychologist, expanded the concepts and pro- cedures Binet developed. He was convinced that Binet and Simon had discovered an approach that would be useful for measuring intellectual abilities in all children. This belief prompted him to revise the Binet instrument, adding greater breadth to the scale. In 1916, Terman published the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale in conjunction with Stanford University. Dur- ing this period, Terman introduced the term intelligence quotient, or IQ. The IQ score was obtained by dividing a child’s mental age (MA) by his or her chronological age (CA) and mul- tiplying that figure by 100 (MA/CA 3 100 5 IQ). For example, a child with a mental age of 12 and a chronological age of 8 would have an IQ of 150 (12/8 3 100 5 150). See the nearby Reflect on This, “An IQ of 228: Is That Possible?” for an example of a person with an extraordinary IQ.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Gifted, creative, and talented Terms applied to individuals with extraordinary abilities or the capacity for developing them.
Mental age (MA) A score that represents the individ- ual’s mental age according to vari- ous tasks he or she is able to perform on a given IQ test. Children who are able to complete tasks well beyond their chronological age (CA) will have a higher mental age (MA) and thus a higher-than- average IQ score (MA, 12 years/CA, 8 years 3 100 5 IQ 150).
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale A standardized individual intelli- gence test, originally known as the Binet-Simon scales, which was revised and standardized by Lewis Terman at Stanford University.
Intelligence quotient (IQ) A score obtained from an intelligence test that reflects the relationship between one’s chronological age and one’s mental age (MA, 12 years/ CA, 8 years 3 100 5 IQ, 150).
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15 -1 A C H A N G I N G E R A I N T H E L I V E S O F P E O P L E W H O A R E G I F T E D, C R E AT I V E , A N D TA L E N T E D 399
Gradually, other researchers became interested in studying the nature and assessment of intelligence. They tended to view intelligence as an underlying ability or capacity that expressed itself in a variety of ways. The unitary IQ scores that were derived from the Stanford-Binet tests were representative of and contributed to this notion.
Over time, however, other researchers came to believe that intellect was represented by a variety of distinct capacities and abilities (Cattell, 1971; Guilford, 1959). This line of thinking suggested that each distinct intellectual capacity could be identified and as- sessed. Several mental abilities were investigated, including memory capacity, divergent thinking, vocabulary usage, and reasoning ability (see Figure 15.1). Gradually, use of the multiple-ability approach outgrew that of the unitary-intelligence notion. Proponents of the multiple-ability approach were convinced that the universe of intellectual functions was extensive and that the intelligence assessment instruments utilized at that time measured
Each little cube represents a unique combination of one kind of operation, one kind of content, and one kind of product—and hence a distinctly different intellectual ability or function.
Products Units
Classes Relations
Systems Transformations
Implications
Operations Cognition Memory Divergent production Convergent production Evaluation
Contents Visual Symbolic Semantic Behavioral
Figure 15.1 Guilford’s Structure of the Intellect Model
An IQ of 228: Is that Possible?
At the age of 10, Marilyn vos Savant an- swered every question on the Stanford- Binet correctly. At the time, her mental age was “22 years and 11 months,” and her calculated IQ was 228. Since that time, she has been listed in the Guinness Book of World Records for five years un- der “Highest IQ” for her childhood and adult scores (Savant, 2012, p. 1). Marilyn
currently lives in New York with her hus- band. She is an executive at Jarvik Heart, Inc., and she writes a regular column for Parade magazine, which is a supplement to Sunday newspapers (Knight, 2009).
Question for Reflection What experiences as a child (in addition to her native endowment) do you think
contributed to this test performance at 10 years of age?
SOURCES: Knight, S. (2009). Is High IQ a Burden as Much as a Blessing? Retrieved May 15, 2009, from www.f t.com /cms/s/0/4add9230-23d5-11de-996a-00144feabdc0.html; Savant, M. (2012). About Marilyn. Retrieved April 10, 2012, from http://marilynvossavant.com/about-marilyn/.
REFLECT ON THIS
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Then
Giftedness
One’s status in a statistical distribution Strictly quantitative and psychometric Deductions or conclusions reached by testing available data against the established, fixed criteria A photograph
Now Potentials to be nurtured Qualitative more than quantitative Inferences drawn from one’s accomplishments over sustained periods of time Manifested in diverse ways A collage
Then
Response to Giftedness
Single program for all or limited options for categories Prespecified curriculum—fixed content Separate from (and higher-level than) the regular curriculum Ownership centralized in the G/T teacher Derived from generic inferences about G/T student needs
Now
Programming for giftedness or encouraging gifted behaviors Options, flexibility in choice and duration; extending and enhancing a strong regular curriculum Responsive (real-time) design, based on students’ actual characteristics
Then
Identification of Giftedness
Selection Exclusive—find only the “right” or “truly gifted” students Emphasis on gate-keeping Establishing an index or score Justifying who’s in or out
Now Diagnostic—prepares for improved or enhanced instructional planning Inclusive—seeks to nurture students’ best potentials Deliberate, positive: finds strengths Developmental or growth-oriented
Figure 15.2 New Perspectives in Gifted Education
a very small portion of an individual’s true intellectual capacities (Sternberg, Jarvin, & Grigorenko, 2011).
One of the key contributors to the multidimensional theory of intelligence was J. P. Guilford (1950, 1959). He saw intelligence as a diverse range of intellectual and creative abilities. Guilford’s work led many researchers to view intelligence more broadly, focusing their scientific efforts on the emerging field of creativity and its various subcomponents, such as divergent thinking, problem solving, and decision making. Gradually, tests or measures of creativity were developed, using the constructs drawn from models Guilford and others created (Treffinger, 2004).
In summary, conceptions of giftedness during the early 1920s were closely tied to the score that an individual obtained on an intelligence test. Thus, a single score—one’s IQ— was the index by which one was identified as being gifted. Beginning with the work of Guilford (1950, 1959) and Torrance (1961, 1965, 1968), notions regarding giftedness were greatly expanded. Giftedness began to be used to refer not only to those with high IQs, but also to those who demonstrated high aptitude on creativity measures. More recently, the term talented has been added to the descriptors associated with giftedness. As a result, individuals who demonstrate remarkable skills in the visual or performing arts or who excel in other areas of performance may be designated as gifted. Figure 15.2 reveals how
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15 -2 D E F I N I T I O N S A N D C L A S S I F I C AT I O N S O F P E O P L E W H O A R E G I F T E D, C R E AT I V E , A N D TA L E N T E D 401
our perspectives on giftedness have changed over time with the acceptance of new, mul- tifaceted definitions of giftedness.
Currently, there is no federal mandate in the United States requiring educational services for students identified as gifted, as is the case with other exceptionalities. Only 32 states have mandated services for gifted students (National Association for Gifted Children, 2014). The actual funding of services for individuals who are gifted is a state-by-state, local chal- lenge, so there is tremendous variability in the quality and types of programs offered to students in various states (Clark, 2013).
In coming years, we will probably see talent development replace gifted education as the guiding concept (Claxton & Meadows, 2009; Treffinger, Nassab, & Selby, 2009). Clark (2013) describes talent as specific areas of academic or artistic aptitude, and talent development as efforts directed toward identifying and developing those aptitudes. This description suggests a kind of programming that is directed at all students, not just those identified as gifted, talented, or creative (Clark, 2008; Davis, Rimm, & Siegle, 2011). A
“benefit [of this kind of programming] is that the talent development orientation eliminates the awkwardness of the words gifted and, by exclusion, not gifted” (Davis & Rimm, 2004, p. 28). Currently, talent identification and development is most common in out-of-school university and community programs (Thomsen & Olszewski-Kubilius, 2014). Writers are calling for schools to adopt a developmental concept of gifts and talents, recognizing that intellectual and nonintellectual factors change over time, and that schools should do more to enrich learning environments to promote individual talent development (Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius, & Worrell, 2011).
15-2 Definitions and Classifications of People Who Are Gifted, Creative, and Talented Capturing the essence of any human condition in a definition can be very perplexing. This is certainly true in defining the human attributes, abilities, and potentialities that consti- tute giftedness, creativity, and talent (Davis, Rimm, & Siegle, 2011; Worrell & Erwin, 2011). Throughout this chapter, we will use the terms gifted and giftedness to represent all forms of talents, capacities, and creativity.
Definitions of giftedness serve several important purposes (Horowitz, 2009; Worrell & Erwin, 2011). For example, definitions may have a profound influence on the number and kinds of students ultimately selected in a school system, on the types of instruments and selection procedures used, on the scores students must obtain to qualify for specialized instruction and/or programs, on the amount of funding required to provide services, and on the types of preparation educators need to teach students who are gifted. Thus, definitions are important from both practical and theoretical perspectives (Moon, 2006).
Definitions of giftedness have been influenced by a variety of knowledgeable individu- als (Cattell, 1971; Gardner, 1983; Guilford, 1959; Piirto, 1999; Ramos-Ford & Gardner, 1997; Renzulli & Reis, 2003; Sternberg, 1997; Torrance, 1966). As you will soon discover, there is no universally accepted definition of giftedness (Clark, 2013).
The current definition, a derivative of an earlier government report—the Marland Report to Congress, is as follows:
Students, children, or youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services and activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities. (National Association for Gifted Children, 2012)
Definitions like these guide school personnel and others in pursuing several important objectives. These include identifying students across disciplines with diverse talents, us- ing many different kinds of assessment measures to identify gifted students, identify- ing “achievement capabilities” and not necessarily demonstrated performance in students, searching actively for giftedness in all student populations (cultural, ethnic, economic, etc.), and considering students’ drives and passions for achievement in various areas.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
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Also, new conceptions of giftedness and intelligence have emerged from theoretical and research literature (Esping & Plucker, 2008; Passow, 2004; Ramos-Ford & Gardner, 1997; Sternberg, 1997). One of these approaches is Sternberg’s triarchic theory of human intel- ligence (Sternberg, 1997; Sternberg, Jarvin, & Grigorenko, 2011). In this approach, intel- lectual performance is divided into three parts: analytic, synthetic, and practical. Analytic intelligence is exhibited by people who perform well on aptitude and intelligence tests. Individuals with synthetic giftedness are unconventional thinkers who are creative, intui- tive, and insightful. People with practical intelligence are extraordinarily adept in dealing with problems of everyday life and those that arise in their work environments. Recently, Sternberg (2009) coined the term WICS: wisdom, intelligence, creativity, synthesized—a form of giftedness. His premise is that wisdom, intelligence, and creativity are developed and formed—they are not entirely innate, but must be cultivated and nurtured (Sternberg, Jarvin, & Grigorenko, 2011). Gagné (1999) has also identified catalysts that give rise to gifts and talents in young people (see Figure 15.3).
Another view of giftedness has been developed by Ramos-Ford and Gardner (1997). They have defined intelligence or giftedness as “an ability or set of abilities that permit an individual to solve problems or fashion products that are of consequence in a particular cultural setting” (Ramos-Ford & Gardner, 1991, p. 56). This perspective on giftedness is referred to as the theory of multiple intelligences. Intelligence is assumed to manifest itself in linguistic, logical–mathematical, spatial, bodily–kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal behaviors (Esping & Plucker, 2008). Table 15.1 provides brief definitions of each of these behaviors, as well as the child and adult roles associated with each type of intelligence.
These and other definitions of giftedness have moved us from unitary measures of IQ to multiple measures of creativity, problem-solving ability, talent, and intelligence. However,
Physical Anthropometry, physiognomy, health, etc. Psychological Motivation: needs, values, interests, etc. Volition: concentration, perseverance, etc. Personality: temperament, traits, disorders.
Intrapersonal Catalysts
Catalysts (Positive/negative impacts)
Developmental Processes Learning—Training—Practicing
Intellectual Inductive/deductive reasoning, memory, observation, judgment, etc. Creative Originality, inventiveness, humor, etc. Socioaffective Leadership, tact, empathy, self-awareness, etc. Perceptual/motor Strength, coordination, endurance, flexibility, etc. Others Extrasensory perception, gift of healing, etc.
Giftedness Aptitude Domains
Surroundings Physical, social, macro/micro, etc. Persons Parents, teachers, peers, mentors, etc. Undertakings Activities, courses, programs, etc. Events Encounters, awards, accidents, etc.
Environmental Catalysts
Academics Language, science, etc. Games of strategy Chess, puzzles, video, etc. Technology Mechanics, computers, etc. Arts Visual, drama, music, etc. Social action Tutoring, school politics, etc. Business Sales, entrepreneurship, etc. Athletics and sports
Talents Fields Relevant to School-Age Youth
Figure 15.3 Catalysts for the Development of Gifts and Talents
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15 – 3 C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S A N D P R E VA L E N C E O F P E O P L E W H O A R E G I F T E D, C R E AT I V E , A N D TA L E N T E D 403
despite the movement away from IQ scores and other changes in definitions of giftedness, critics argue that many if not most local, district, and state definitions are elitist in nature and favor the “affluent” and “privileged” (Borland, 2003; Ford, 2003).
The definitions of giftedness are diverse (Clark, 2013; Moon, 2006; Stephens & Karnes, 2000). Each of the definitions we have examined reveals the challenges associated with defining the nature of giftedness (Worrell & Erwin, 2011). In a multicultural, pluralistic society, such as that of the United States, different abilities and capacities are encouraged and valued by different parents, teachers, and communities. Also, definitions of giftedness are often a function of educational, societal, and political priorities at a particular time and place (Phillipson & McCann, 2007; Sternberg, Jarvin, & Grigorenko, 2011).
15-3 Characteristics and Prevalence of People Who Are Gifted, Creative, and Talented Determining the number of children who are gifted is a challenge. The complexity of the task is directly related to problems inherent in determining who is gifted and what constitutes giftedness (Gallagher, 2004). The numerous definitions of giftedness range from quite restrictive (in terms of the number of children to whom they apply) to very inclusive and broad descriptions. Consequently, the prevalence estimates are highly variable.
Prevalence figures compiled before the 1950s were primarily limited to the intellectually gifted: those identified primarily through intelligence tests. At that time, 2 to 3 percent of the general population was considered gifted. During the 1950s, when professionals in the field advocated an expanded view of giftedness (Conant, 1959; DeHann & Havighurst, 1957), the prevalence figures suggested for program planning were substantially affected. Terms such as academically talented were used to refer to the upper 15 to 20 percent of the general school population.
Thus, prevalence estimates have fluctuated, depending on the views of politicians, policy makers, researchers, and professionals during past decades. Currently, 2 to 5 percent
Table 15.1 The Seven Intelligences
Intelligence Brief Description Related Child and Adult Roles
Linguistic The capacity to express oneself in spoken or written language with great facility
Superb storyteller, creative writer, or inventive speaker: Novelist, lyricist, lawyer
Logical– mathematical
The ability to reason inductively and deductively and to complete complex computations
Thorough counter, calculator, notation maker, or symbol user: Mathematician, physicist, computer scientist
Spatial The capacity to create, manipulate, and represent spatial configurations
Creative builder, sculptor, artist, or skilled assembler of models: Architect, talented chess player, mechanic, navigator
Bodily–kinesthetic The ability to perform various complex tasks or activities with one’s body or part of the body
Skilled playground game player, emerging athlete or dancer: Surgeon, dancer, professional athlete
Musical The capacity to discriminate musical pitches, to hear musical themes, and to sense rhythm, timbre, and texture
Good singer, creator of original songs or musical pieces: Musician, composer, director
Interpersonal The ability to understand others’ actions, emotions, and intents and to act effectively in response to verbal and nonverbal behaviors of others
Child organizer or orchestrator, child leader, or a very social child: Teacher, therapist, political social leader
Intrapersonal The capacity to understand well and respond to one’s own thoughts, desires, feelings, and emotions
A sensitive child, a resilient child, or an optimistic child: Social worker, therapist, counselor, hospice worker
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may be identified as gifted, increasing to 10 to 25 percent if individuals identified through talent development programs are included (Clark, 2013).
Accurately identifying the characteristics of gifted people is an enormous task. Different types of studies have generated many characteristics attributed to those who are gifted (see Table 15.2; MacKinnon, 1962; Terman, 1925). Gradually, what emerged from these studies were oversimplified, incomplete views of giftedness.
Unfortunately, much of the initial research related to the characteristics of giftedness was conducted with limited population samples. Generally, the studies did not include
adequate samples of females or indi- viduals from various ethnic and cul- tural groups, nor did early researchers carefully control for factors directly re- lated to socioeconomic status. There- fore, the characteristics generated from these studies were not representative of gifted individuals as a whole but, rather, reflected the characteristics of gifted individuals from advantaged environments.
Given the present multifaceted definitions of giftedness and emerg- ing views of intelligence, we must con- clude that gifted individuals come from all population sectors. Consequently, research findings of the past must be interpreted with great caution as prac- titioners weigh and assess a particular youth’s behaviors, attributes, talents, motivations, and dispositions.
Davis and Rimm (2004) have iden- tified a number of positive and nega- tive characteristics of student who are gifted (see Table 15.2).
Gifted students, who are intellec- tually able, demonstrate one resound- ing trait—“they are developmentally advanced in language and thought” (Davis & Rimm, 2004, p. 35). Many learn to speak and read very early.
Their mental ages, as revealed in intelligence tests, far exceed their chronological ages. Moreover, their innate curiosity and capacity for asking questions can drive some par- ents and even teachers to the brink of exhaustion and desperation (Morawska & Sanders, 2009). These students can be unusually tenacious in pursuing ideas, discussing concerns, and raising questions. They may also have interests that would be characteristic of older children and/or adults.
Generally, gifted students are well adjusted and socially adept. There are, of course, exceptions (Reis & Renzulli, 2004). One of the more interesting attributes of gifted children and youth is their penchant for “emotional excitability” and “high sensitivity” (Davis & Rimm, 2004, p. 37). In this regard, their reactions can be more intense—that is, they may feel more joy and also experience greater sadness than age-mates. Table 15.2 lists char- acteristics often evident in gifted students.
Students who are described as creative share a number of personality attributes and dispositions. They often exhibit high energy and high motivation to succeed or perform. They have a real zest for pursuing tasks and seeking solutions to problems they encounter. Furthermore, they also have a proclivity for risk taking. They love to try new activities, to experiment with new behaviors, and to consider novel ways of processing problems or
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Photo 15.1 People with gifts and talents come from every ethnic, cultural, and socioeconomic background. While some individuals achieve in intellectual endeavors, others excel through athletics.
Ga ry
b og
do n/
Ep a/
N ew
sc om
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15 – 3 C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S A N D P R E VA L E N C E O F P E O P L E W H O A R E G I F T E D, C R E AT I V E , A N D TA L E N T E D 405
Table 15.2 Characteristics of Students Who Are Gifted
Positive Characteristics General Characteristics Negative Characteristics
Unusual alertness in infancy and later Wide interests, interested in new topics Uneven mental development
Early and rapid learning High curiosity, explores how and why Interpersonal difficulties, often due to in- tellectual differences
Rapid language development as a child Multiple capabilities (multipotentiality) Underachievement, especially in uninter- esting areas
Superior language ability—verbally fluent, large vocabulary, complex grammar
High care ambitions (desire to be helpful to others)
Nonconformity, sometimes in disturbing directions
Enjoyment of learning Overexcitability Perfectionism, which can be extreme
Academic superiority, large knowledge base, sought out as a resource
Emotional intensity and sensitivity Excessive self-criticism
Superior analytic ability High alertness and attention Self-doubt, poor self-image
Keen observation High intellectual and physical activity level Variable frustration and anger
Efficient, high-capacity memory High motivation, concentrates, perseveres, persists, task-oriented
Depression
Superior reasoning, problem solving Active—shares information, directs, leads, offers help, eager to be involved
Thinking that is abstract, complex, logical, insightful
Strong empathy, moral thinking, sense of justice, honesty, intellectual honesty
Insightful, sees “big picture,” recognizes patterns, connects topics
Aware of social issues
Manipulates symbol systems High concentration, long attention span
Uses high-level thinking skills, efficient strategies
Strong internal control
Extrapolates knowledge to new situations, goes beyond what is taught
Independent, self-directed, works alone
Expanded awareness, greater self-awareness
Inquisitive, asks questions
Greater metacognition (understanding own thinking)
Excellent sense of humor
Advanced interests Imaginative, creative, solves problems
Needs for logic and accuracy Preference for novelty
Reflectiveness
Good self-concept
SOURCE: Adapted from Davis, G. A., & Rimm, S. B. (2004). Education of the Gifted and Talented, 5th ed. (p. 33). San Francisco: Allyn and Bacon.
creating things (artistic, mechanical, etc.). Table 15.3 lists characteristics often evident in students described as creative.
No student who is identified as gifted will exhibit all of the characteristics described in this section. However, parents, teachers, coaches, and mentors have an opportunity, as well as an obligation, to encourage these traits, behaviors, proclivities, and dispositions. Studies of the lives of prominent gifted and talented individuals reveal that mentoring, special activities, and the efforts of parents have had more impact on success than have school activities (Olszewski-Kubilius & Lee, 2004).
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
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15-4 Causes Associated with People Who Are Gifted, Creative, and Talented Scientists have long been interested in identifying the origins of intelligence. Conclusions have varied greatly. For years, many scientists adhered to a hereditary explanation of in- telligence: that people inherit their intellectual capacity at conception. Thus, intelligence was viewed as an innate capacity that remained relatively fixed during an individual’s lifetime. The prevailing belief then was that little could be done to enhance or improve intellectual ability.
During the 1920s and 1930s, scientists such as John Watson began to explore the new notion of behavioral psychology, or behaviorism. Like other behaviorists who followed him, Watson believed that the environment played a vitally important role in the development of intelligence as well as personality traits. Initially, Watson largely discounted the role of heredity and its importance in intellectual development. Later, however, he moderated his views, moving toward a theoretical perspective in which both heredity and environment contributed to an individual’s intellectual ability.
During the 1930s, many investigators sought to determine the relative influence of he- redity and environment on intellectual development. Some proponents of genetics asserted that as much as 70 to 80 percent of an individual’s capacity was determined by heredity and the remainder by environmental influences. Environmentalists believed otherwise. The controversy over the relative contributions of heredity and environment to intelligence (known as the nature versus nurture controversy) is likely to continue for some time, in part because of the complexity and breadth of the issues involved. For example, studies of identical twins raised in different environments suggest that 44 to 72 percent of their intelligence (general cognitive ability) is inherited. With regard to environmental factors, we are just beginning to understand the dynamic relationships between nature and nurture and how giftedness manifests itself developmentally over time (Horowitz, 2009). Again,
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
Nature versus nurture Controversy concerning how much of a person’s ability is related to sociocultural influences (nurture) and how much is due to genetic factors (nature).
Table 15.3 Characteristics of Students Who Are Creative
Positive Traits Approximate Synonyms
Original Imaginative, resourceful, flexible, unconventional, thinks metaphorically, challenges assumptions, irritated and bored by the obvious, avoids perceptual set, asks “what if?”
Aware of creativeness Creativity-conscious, values originality, values own creativity
Independent Self-confident, individualistic, nonconforming, sets own rules, unconcerned with impressing others, resists societal demands
Risk taking Not afraid to be different or to try something new, willing to cope with hostility, willing to cope with failure
Motivated Energetic, adventurous, sensation seeking, enthusiastic, excitable, spontaneous, impulsive, intrinsically motivated, persevering, works beyond assigned tasks
Curious Questions norms and assumptions, experiments, inquisitive, wide interests, is a problem finder, asks “why?”
Sense of humor Playful, plays with ideas, childlike freshness in thinking
Attracted to complexity Attracted to novelty, asymmetry, the mysterious, theoretical and abstract problems; is a complex person; tolerant of ambiguity, disorder, incongruity
Artistic Artistic and aesthetic interests, attracted to beauty and order
Open-minded Receptive to new ideas, other viewpoints, new experiences, and growth; liberal; altruistic
Needs alone time Reflective, introspective, internally preoccupied, sensitive, may be withdrawn, likes to work alone
Intuitive Perceptive, sees relationships, finds order in chaos, uses all senses in observing
Intelligent Verbally fluent, articulate, logical, good decision maker, detects gaps in knowledge, visualizes
SOURCE: Adapted from Davis, G. A., & Rimm, S. B. (2004). Education of the Gifted and Talented, 5th ed. (p. 42). San Francisco: Allyn and Bacon.
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15 – 4 C AU S E S A S S O C I AT E D W I T H P E O P L E W H O A R E G I F T E D, C R E AT I V E , A N D TA L E N T E D 407
“bright children select and are selected by peers and educational programs that foster their abilities. They read and think more. This is the profound meaning of finding genetic influ- ences on measures of the environment. Genes contribute to the experience itself” (Plomin & Price, 2003, p. 120). Plomin and Price (2003) captured it best when they said “it may well be more appropriate to think about [general cognitive ability] as an appetite rather than an aptitude” (p. 121). This appetite allows gifted children and youth to profit more fully from environmental influences over their lifetimes.
Thus far, we have focused on the origins of intelligence rather than on giftedness per se. Many of the theories about the emergence of giftedness have been derived from the study of general intelligence. Few authors have focused directly on the origins of giftedness. Moreover, the ongoing changes in the definitions of giftedness have further complicated the precise investigation of its origins.
The “Star Model” for explaining the causes and antecedents of giftedness is composed of five elements, each of which contributes to gifted behavior (see Figure 15.4). These ele- ments are superior general intellect, distinctive special aptitudes, nonintellective factors, environmental supports, and chance. Associated with each are the descriptors dynamic and static. The static dimension includes factors that remain relatively constant or unchanged, such as the child’s or youth’s race and economic status. The dynamic dimension includes factors that are fluid and responsive to contextual or environmental changes or interven- tions. Elaborating on this notion, Hughes (2009) wrote: “Giftedness evolves and factors are developmental: It cannot be definitively fixed or measured. It is grown, not diagnosed” (p. 168). Increasingly, we will move from finding and labeling giftedness to developing it, that is, putting in place the conditions that give rise to talents, creativity, and giftedness.
The abilities associated with superior intelligence are generally factors assessed through intelligence tests (verbal, spatial, and memory capacity). Special abilities are those found, for example, in child prodigies who demonstrate extraordinary musical, mathemati- cal, or other emerging talents. Nonintellective factors are a wide-ranging set of attributes, including, believe it or not, psychopathology and perfectionism. Many gifted artists and writers show clear signs of pathological deviance or emotional distress (Callard-Szulgit, 2003; Reis & Renzulli, 2004). Other, more positive factors associated with this element include motivation, self-concept, and resilience. The influence of environmental support
General Ability
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Figure 15.4 The Star Model: Psychosocial Factors Associated with Gifted Achievements
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is obvious. “Giftedness requires [a] social context that enables it to mature. … Human po- tential needs nurturance, urgings, encouragement, and even pressures from a world that cares” (Tannenbaum, 2003, p. 54). Last is the element of chance. Often, external factors that coincide with one’s preparation and talent development contribute to one’s eventual imminence or greatness (Worrell, 2009). All of these factors come together in a unique fashion to produce various kinds of giftedness.
Finally, Colvin (2008), in his book Talent Is Overrated: What Really Separates World- Class Performers from Everybody Else, suggests that many innate or naturally occur- ring gifts and talents are overvalued—that outstanding performance in most fields of expertise comes from consistent and deliberate practice—even hard work. In the absence of pronounced and persistent practice, giftedness in its various forms is not achieved. Additionally, the significant contributions these individuals could have made never come to light—the artwork, the medical advances, the musical works, the inventions, the artistic performance—all remain dormant and unexpressed.
15-5 Identification and Assessment of People Who Are Gifted, Creative, and Talented The focus of assessment procedures for identifying giftedness is beginning to change (Stern- berg, Jarvin, & Grigorenko, 2011). Elitist definitions and exclusive approaches are being re- placed with more defensible, inclusive methods of assessment (Davis, Rimm, & Siegle, 2011; Richert, 2003). Tests for identifying people with potential for gifted performance are being more carefully selected; that is, tests are being used with the children for whom they were
Steve Jobs: “I Will Never Forget that Moment.”
Like most kids, [Jobs] became infused with the passions of the grown-ups around him. “Most of the dads in the neighborhood did really neat stuff. … I grew up in awe of that stuff and asking people about it.” The most important of these neighbors, Larry Lang “… was my model of what an HP engineer was supposed to be: a big ham radio opera- tor, hard-core electronics guy,” Jobs re- called. “He would bring me stuff to play with.” As we walked up to Lang’s old house, Jobs pointed to the driveway: “He took a carbon microphone and a bat- tery and a speaker, and he put it on this driveway. He had me talk into the carbon mike and it amplified out of the speaker.” Jobs had been taught by his father that microphones always required an elec- tronic amplifier. “So I raced home, and I told my dad that he was wrong.”
“No, it needs an amplifier,” his father assu- red him. When Steve protested otherwise, his father said he was crazy. “It can’t work without an amplifier. There’s some trick.”
“I kept saying no to my dad, telling him he had to see it, and finally he actually walked down with me and saw it. And he said, ‘Well I’ll be a bat out of hell.’”
Jobs recalled the incident vividly be- cause it was his first realization that his father did not know everything. Then a more disconcerting discovery began to dawn on him: He was smarter than his parents. He had always admired his father’s competence and savvy. “He was not an educated man, but I had always thought he was pretty damn smart. He didn’t read much, but he could do a lot. Almost everything mechanical, he could figure it out.” Yet the carbon microphone incident, Jobs said, began a jarring process of realizing that he was in fact more clever and quick than his parents. “It was a very big moment that’s burned into my mind. When I real- ized that I was smarter than my parents, I felt tremendous shame for having thought that. I will never forget that moment. …”
Another layer of awareness occurred soon after. Not only did he discover that he was brighter than his parents, but he discovered that they knew this. Paul and Clara Jobs were loving parents, and they were willing to adapt their lives to suit a son who was very smart—and also willful. They would go to great lengths to accommodate him. And soon Steve discovered this fact as well. “Both my parents got me. They felt a lot of re- sponsibility once they sensed that I was special. They found ways to keep feeding me stuff and putting me in bet- ter schools. They were willing to defer to my needs” (Isaacson, 2011, p. 10–12).
Questions for Reflection What role did Steve’s parents play in nurturing his talents and capacities? How do parents come to know that a child is “special”?
SOURCE: Reprinted with the permission of Simon & Schuster, Inc, from Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson. Copyright © 2011 by Walter Isaacson. All rights Reserved.
REFLECT ON THIS
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15 – 5 I D E N T I F I C AT I O N A N D A S S E S S M E N T O F P E O P L E W H O A R E G I F T E D, C R E AT I V E , A N D TA L E N T E D 409
designed. Children who were once excluded from programs for the gifted because of formal or standard cutoff scores that favored particular groups of students are now being included (Richert, 2003; Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014). Multiple sources of information are now collected and reviewed in determining who is potentially gifted (Johnsen, 2008; Worrell & Erwin, 2011). Ideally, the identification process is now directed at identifying needs and potentials rather than merely labeling individuals as gifted. Again, the new thrust is talent develop- ment as well as talent identification (Sosniak & Gabelko, 2008; Subotnik & Calderon, 2008).
Several approaches have also been developed to identify children who are disadvantaged and also gifted. Some theorists and practitioners have argued for the adoption of a contex- tual paradigm or approach. Rather than using information derived solely from typical intelli- gence tests or other talent assessments, this approach relies on divergent views of giftedness as valued and determined by community members, parents, grandparents, and competent informants. Similar approaches focus on nontraditional measures of giftedness. These ap- proaches use multiple criteria, broader ranges of scores for inclusion in special programs, peer nomination, assessments by people other than educational personnel, and information provided by adaptive behavior assessments. Furthermore, these approaches seek to under- stand students’ motivations, interests, capacities for communication, reasoning abilities, imagination, and humor (Briggs et al., 2006; Davis, Rimm, & Siegle, 2011; Richert, 2003). For example, if 60 percent of students in a given school population come from a certain cultural minority group and only 2 percent are identified as gifted via traditional measures, the screening committee may want to reexamine and adjust its identification procedures.
Elementary and secondary students who are gifted are identified in a variety of ways. The first step is generally screening (Worrell & Erwin, 2011). During this phase, teachers, psy- chologists, and other school personnel attempt to select all students who are potentially gifted. A number of procedures are employed in the screening process. Historically, information obtained from group intelligence tests and teacher nominations has been used to select the initial pool of students. However, many other measures and data-collection techniques have been instituted since the approach to assessment of giftedness changed from one-dimensional to multidimensional. These techniques may include developmental inventories, classroom observations, parent and peer nominations, achievement tests, creativity tests, motivation as- sessments, teacher nominations, and evaluations of student projects (Worrell & Erwin, 2011).
15-5a Teacher Nomination Teacher nomination has been an integral part of many screening approaches. This approach is fraught with problems, however. Teachers often favor children who are cooperative, well mannered, and task-oriented. Bright underachievers who are confrontive and/or disruptive may be overlooked. Students from low socioeconomic and ethnic minority groups are much less likely to be recognized as potentially gifted or talented (Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2014). Also, many teachers are unfamiliar with the general traits, behaviors, and dispositions that underlie various forms of giftedness.
Fortunately, some of these problems have been addressed. Several scales, approaches, and guidelines are now available to aid teachers and others who are responsible for making nominations (Davis, Rimm, & Siegle, 2011; Renzulli & Reis, 2003). Teachers who have a thorough understanding of the various kinds of giftedness are in a much better position to provide good information in the nomination, screening, and selection processes (Johnsen, 2008; Johnsen, VanTassel-Baska, & Robinson, 2008).
15-5b Intelligence and Achievement Tests Intelligence testing continues to be a major source of information for screening and iden- tifying general ability or intellectual giftedness in children and adolescents. These tests must be carefully selected. For example, some intelligence tests have low ceilings; that is, they do not allow participating children or youth to demonstrate their remarkable potential. The same is true of some group-administered intelligence tests. They are not designed to identify students who may have exceptionally high intellectual abilities.
One advantage of intelligence testing is that it often identifies underachievers. Intel- ligence test scores often reveal students who have wonderful intellectual capacity that may have gone unrecognized because of their pattern of poor school performance.
Standard 4 Assessment
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A serious limitation associated with intelligence tests emerges when they are admin- istered to individuals for whom the tests were not designed. Very few intelligence tests adequately assess the abilities of children and adolescents who are substantially different from the core culture for whom the tests were created. However, some progress is being made in helping educators identify gifted children who are members of minority groups, underachievers, or at risk (Renzulli, 2004).
Similar problems are inherent in achievement tests, which, like intelligence tests, are not generally designed to measure the true achievement of children who are academically gifted. Such individuals are often prevented from demonstrating their unusual prowess because of the restricted range of the test items. These ceiling effects prevent youth who are gifted from demonstrating their achievement at higher levels. Professionals now recom- mend that schools address ceiling effects by using off-level (sometimes called above-level) achievement testing to more accurately gauge the potential of notably advanced students (Olszewski-Kubilius & Lee, 2011; Thomsen & Olszewski-Kubilius, 2014). This means that schools use higher grade-level assessments for promising students to avoid the ceiling effect and determine where they are actually functioning.
15-5c Creativity Tests Tests for creativity serve several purposes. Often they help teachers or practitioners discover capacity that may not be evident in normal classroom interactions and performances. How- ever, the degree to which these tests actually measure creativity is often called into ques- tion. Because of the nature of creativity and the many forms in which it can be expressed, developing tests to assess its presence and magnitude is a formidable task (Piffer, 2012; Renzulli, 2004; Treffinger, 2004). In spite of these challenges, a number of creativity tests have been formulated (Rimm, 1982; Rimm & Davis, 1983; Torrance, 1966; Williams, 1980). A typical question on a test of divergent thinking might read, “What would happen if your eyes could be adjusted to see things as small as germs?”
Once the screening steps have been completed, the actual identification and selection of students begins. During this phase, each of the previously screened students is carefully evaluated again, using more individualized procedures and assessment tools. Ideally, these techniques should be closely related to the definition of giftedness used by the district and to the program offered to students (Eckert, 2006; Gubbins, 2006; Rogers, 2006). It is im- portant to note that tests measure creative potential, not creative achievement (Piffer, 2012). Once identified, students are most likely to turn potential to achievement when provided sufficient time and opportunities to explore and develop their unique abilities (Moran, 2010).
A series of recommendations and statements that summarize this section on assess- ment and identification have been identified in Table 15.4. If these recommendations are carefully followed, more appropriate and equitable decisions will be made in identifying and serving children and youth who are gifted or potentially gifted.
Ceiling effects A restricted range of test questions or problems that does not permit academically gifted students to demonstrate their true capacity or achievement.
Off-level Assessments or materials designed for higher-grade students.
Table 15.4 Current Thinking and Recommendations for Identifying Gifted Students
● Adopt a clearly defined but broadened conception of giftedness. ● Avoid using a single cutoff score. ● Use multiple alternative criteria—not multiple required hurdles—from several different sources. ● Use separate instruments or procedures for different areas of giftedness; be sure that tests (including ratings and nominations)
are reliable and valid. ● Include authentic assessment (e.g., portfolios, examples of work) and performance-based procedures (e.g., evaluation tasks
that elicit problem solving and creativity). ● Be aware that giftedness may appear in different forms in different cultural or socioeconomic groups. ● Repeat assessments over time to identify additional gifted students. ● Use identification data to enhance your understanding of students.
SOURCE: Adapted from Davis, G. A., & Rimm, S. B. (2004). “Identifying Gifted and Talented Students.” In Education of the Gifted and Talented, 5th ed. (p. 81). San Francisco: Allyn and Bacon.
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15 – 6 I N T E R V E N T I O N S A N D T R E AT M E N T F O R P E O P L E W H O A R E G I F T E D, C R E AT I V E , A N D TA L E N T E D 411
15-6 Interventions and Treatment for People Who Are Gifted, Creative, and Talented Strategies for meeting the needs of gifted, creative, and talented individuals vary according to age and access to formal and informal opportunities for growth. Beginning in the home and extending through the school years and into adulthood, a variety of interventions have been used successfully.
15-6a Early Childhood Education Current research suggests that many young children with high cognitive ability (HCA) can be identified in the middle of the second year of life (Colombo, Shaddy, Blaga, Anderson, & Kannass, 2009). Parents may contribute to HCA and other attributes of their children through a number of pathways (Gottfried, Gottfried, & Guerin, 2009; Horowitz, 2009; Rimm, 2008). During the first 15 months of life, 90 percent of all social interactions with children take place during such activities as feeding, bathing, changing diapers, and dressing. Parents who are interested in advancing social and cognitive development use these occasions for stimulating and talking to their children; providing varied sensory experiences such as bare- skin cuddling, tickling, and smiling; and conveying a sense of trust. Early, concentrated, language-centered involvement with young children gives rise to substantial cognitive, so- cial, and linguistic skills (Horowitz, 2009).
As children progress through the infancy, toddler, and preschool periods, the experi- ences provided become more varied and uniquely suited to the child’s emerging interests and capacities (Subotnik & Calderon, 2008). Language and cognitive development are encouraged by means of stories that are read and told. Chil- dren are also urged to make up their own stories. Brief periods are reserved for discussions or spontaneous conversations that arise from events that have mo- mentarily captured their atten- tion. Requests for help in saying or printing a word are promptly fulfilled. Thus, many children who are gifted learn to read be- fore they enter kindergarten or first grade.
A variety of preschool pro- grams have been developed for young children who are gifted. Some children are involved in traditional programs that focus on activities and curricula devoted primarily to the development of academic skills. Many of the traditional programs emphasize affective and social development as well (Mooij, 2013). The entry criteria for these programs are varied, but the primary considerations are usually the child’s IQ and social maturity.
Creativity programs are designed to help children develop their natural endowments in a number of artistic and creative domains (Lubbard, Georgsdottir, & Besançon, 2009; Treffinger, 2004). Another purpose of such programs is to help children discover their own areas of promise. Children in these programs are also prepared for eventual involvement in traditional academic areas of schooling.
15-6b Elementary Education Giftedness in elementary students may be nurtured in a variety of ways. A number of service delivery systems and approaches are used in responding to the needs of students who are gifted (Purcell & Eckert, 2006; Robinson, Shore, & Enersen, 2007; VanTassel-Baska,
Standard 2 Learning Environments
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
Photo 15.2 Parents play essential roles in nurturing and stimulating children with potential gifts and talents.
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2012). The nurturing process has often been referred to as differentiated education—that is, an education uniquely and predominantly suited to the natural abilities and interests of individuals who are gifted (Firmender, Reis, & Sweeny, 2013; Scott, 2014). Programs for children are targeted at delivering content more rapidly, using a variety of engaging instructional strategies, delivering more challenging content, examining content in greater depth, pursuing highly specialized content, and/or dealing with more complex and higher levels of subject matter (Caraisco, 2007; Cross & Coleman, 2014).
Instructional Approaches Instructional approaches for gifted students are selected on the basis of a variety of factors (Tomlinson & Hockett, 2008). First, the school system must determine what types of giftedness it is capable of serving and supporting. It must also establish identification criteria and related measures that enable it to select qualified stu- dents fairly. For example, if the system is primarily interested in enhancing creativity, measures and indices of creativity should be utilized. If the focus of the program is
Differentiated education Instruction and learning activities that are uniquely and predominantly suited to the attributes, capacities, motivations, and interests of gifted students.
Don-Wook Shin
CASE STUDY ON EMBRACING DIVERSITY
Don-Wook Shin was doing long division in his head before the age of 5. He be- gan learning calculus in fifth grade, took his first Advanced Placement (AP) test in seventh grade, and then proceeded to teach himself the curriculum to seven other AP math and science courses over the next three years. By the end of 10th grade, he’d done so well on all those AP tests that he was named a Siemens Award winner as the highest-scoring male student in California.
Catherine Cloughesy, his kindergarten teacher, noticed Shin’s unusual facility with math and started throwing out long division with three-digit numbers. She stated, “I would sit next to him and I could see that he did it in his head and then wrote it down. It was quite shock- ing.” She added, “You wouldn’t know if you just met him. I’ve met a lot of gifted children and it’s a rare trait to be able to joke and laugh about yourself like he can.”
Catherine Harrington, a part-time inclu- sion specialist, worked with Shin before or after school, “giving up her own time to tutor me one-on-one,” said Shin, to make sure he could continue progress- ing at his own rate in math. Harrington eventually enlisted another teacher to help Shin with calculus.
The story of this gifted child is also the story of a community of family and
teachers who decided when Shin was still very young that this exceptional student, who could have gone to col- lege as early as seventh grade, should be given a true childhood—a chance to grow up among his peers and become a well-rounded individual. The whole idea of Shin taking AP tests at such a young age was really more about mea- suring what he was learning. By the time he was in the ninth grade, Shin had taken and received top scores of 5 on calculus BC, statistics, both physics tests, and biology.
When his parents asked Harrington what Shin should work on over the sum- mer, “I told them he needed to work on
riding his bike, swimming, and playing,” Harrington said. That insistence that this child should remain a child is why, Harrington and Cloughesy said, Shin has become such a well-rounded teenager. Keeping him with his peers—who aca- demically were all over the place—not only taught him humility, Harrington said, but how to be socially appropriate.
“My parents wanted to give me time to enjoy high school and develop on my own,” Shin said of his journey. “It was my own decision to skip one year ahead. I’m really looking forward to college and being able to study what I want to study.”
Application Questions 1. What difficulties would you antici- pate if Shin was a student in your first- grade class? Be sure to consider and ad- dress academic, social, emotional, and behavioral concerns.
2. How did Shin’s school address the disparity between his cognitive func- tioning and his chronological age?
3. In what other ways could his school have addressed Shin’s needs if teach- ers were unwilling or unable to provide out-of-contract service?
Source: Ternus-Bellamy, A. (2013, March 7). “The Story of a Gif ted Child.” The Davis Enterprise, p. A1. Retrieved from www.davisenterprise.com/local-news/the-story-of-a -gif ted-child/.
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15 – 6 I N T E R V E N T I O N S A N D T R E AT M E N T F O R P E O P L E W H O A R E G I F T E D, C R E AT I V E , A N D TA L E N T E D 413
accelerating math achievement and understanding, instruments that measure mathematical aptitude and achievement should be employed. Second, the school system must select the organizational structures through which children who are gifted are to receive their differen- tiated education. Third, school personnel must select the instructional approaches to be utilized within each program setting. Fourth, school personnel must select continuous evalu- ation procedures and techniques that help them assess the overall effectiveness of the pro- gram. Data generated from such evaluations can serve as catalysts for making appropriate and meaningful changes (Callahan, 2008; Johnsen, 2013). Take a moment to think about Don-Wook Shin featured in the accompanying Case Study. What kinds of instructional ap- proaches might be helpful to him in capitalizing on his intellectual gifts?
Service Delivery Systems Once the types of giftedness to be emphasized have been selected and appropriate identification procedures have been established, planning must be directed at selecting suitable service delivery systems. Organizational structures for stu- dents who are gifted are similar to those found in other areas of special education. Several options have been developed to provide services for students who are gifted (see Figure 15.5). Each of the learning environments in the model has advantages and disadvantages. For example, students who are enrolled in regular education classrooms and are given opportunities to spend time in seminars, resource rooms, special classes, and other novel learning environments profit from these experiences because they are responsive to their interests, talents, and capacities. Furthermore, such pullout activities provide a means for students to interact with one another and to pursue interests for which the usual school cur- riculum offers little access. However, the disadvantages of such a program are numerous. Major parts of the school week may be spent doing things that may not be appropriate or engaging for students who are gifted. Also, when gifted students return to general education classes, they are frequently required to make up missed assignments.
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
Standard 2 Learning Environments
All programs for gifted learners, regardless of how they are structured, must provide differentiation, flexible grouping, continuous progress, intellectual peer interaction, continuity, and teachers with specialized education.
3– 5%
1– 2%
<1%
Highly Gifted Learners Level 2 (1–2%)
Exceptionally Gifted Learners Level 3 (<1%)
Gifted Learners Level 1 (3–5%)
Discipline-Focused Schools
Radical Acceleration
Appropriate Challenges
Governor’s Schools
Magnet Schools Home Schooling
Special Schools
Magnet Classes
Honors Classes
Core-Curr. Classes
Advanced Placement
Special Classes
Team Teaching
Mentors
Individualized Instruction
Gifted Clusters
Regular Classrooms
Resource Room
Contracts Independent
Study Adjunct
Programs
Cross Grade Classes
Figure 15.5 Clark’s Structuring Gifted Program
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People Who Are Gifted, Creative, and Talented
COMMUNITY SUPPORT FOR LIFELONG INCLUSION
Early Childhood Years Tips for Families
● Realize that giftedness is evidenced in many ways (e.g., concentration, memory, pleasure in learning, sense of humor, social skills, task orienta- tion, ability to follow and lead, capac- ity and desire to compete, information capacity).
● Provide toys that may be used for a va- riety of activities and purposes.
● Take trips to museums, exhibits, fairs, and other places of interest to your child.
● Talk to the child in ways that foster give-and-take conversation.
● Begin to expose the child to picture books and ask him or her to find cer- tain objects or animals or to respond to age-appropriate questions.
● Avoid unnecessary restrictions.
● Provide play materials that are devel- opmentally appropriate and may be a little challenging.
Tips for Preschool Teachers ● Look for ways in which various talents
and skills may be expressed or devel- oped (e.g., cognitive, artistic, lead- ership, socialization, motor ability, memory, imagination).
● Capitalize on the child’s curiosity. Develop learning activities related to his or her passions and emerging interests.
● Allow the child to experiment with all the elements of language—even writ- ten language—as he or she is ready.
● Give the child highly engaging learn- ing experiences.
Tips for Preschool Personnel ● Remember that conversation is critical
to the child’s development. Do not be reluctant to spend a great deal of time asking the child questions as he or she engages in various activities.
● Become a specialist in looking for and developing gifts and talents across a
variety of domains (e.g., artistic, social, cognitive).
● Allow for rapid mastery of concepts, and then allow the child to move on to other, more challenging activities rather than holding him or her back.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Provide preschool opportunities for all children who are potentially gifted to have the necessary environmental ingredients to use their talents or gifts fully—that is, support and encourage talent development.
● Enjoy and sometimes endure the neighborhood child who has chosen your home as his or her lab for various experiments in cooking, painting, and building.
● Collaborate with friends and family in talking about potentially gifted chil- dren, considering ways to nurture their development.
Elementary Years Tips for Families
● Maintain the search for individual gifts and talents; some qualities may not be evident until a child is older.
● Collaborate with other professionals in providing appropriate experiences and options for gifted learners.
● Provide out-of-school experiences that foster talent or skill development (e.g., artistic, physical, academic, social).
● Enroll a child who is gifted in summer programs offered by universities or colleges.
● Monitor the child’s school environ- ment to be sure that adequate steps are being taken to respond to your child’s unique skills, interests, and abilities.
● Join an advocacy group for parents in your community and consider taking a parenting class.
● Subscribe to child publications related to your child’s current interests.
● Encourage your child’s friendships and associations with other children who have like interests and aptitudes.
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● Provide opportunities for enrichment as well as acceleration.
● Allow students who are gifted to pur- sue individual or group projects that require sophisticated forms of think- ing, production, or problem solving.
● Become involved in professional as- sociations that provide assistance to teachers of students who are gifted.
● Take a course that specifically ad- dresses the instructional strategies that might be helpful children who are gifted.
● Encourage children to become active participants in various events that emphasize particular skills or knowl- edge areas (e.g., science fairs, music competitions).
Tips for School Personnel
● Develop clubs and programs that en- able children who are gifted to pursue their talents.
● Create award programs that encour- age talent development across a vari- ety of domains.
● Involve and collaborate with commu- nity members (e.g., artists, engineers, writers) in offering enrichment and ac- celeration activities.
● Foster the use of inclusive procedures for identifying students who are po- tentially gifted from groups that are culturally diverse, are disadvantaged, or have disabilities.
Tips for Neighbors and Friends
● Contribute to organizations that foster talent development.
● Volunteer to serve as judges for com- petitive events.
● Be willing to share your talents with young, emergent scholars, musicians, athletes, and artists.
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● Become a mentor for someone in your community.
Secondary and Transition Years Tips for Families
● Continue to provide sources of sup- port for talent development outside of the home.
● Regularly counsel with your child about courses he or she may take— collaborate with counselors and other school personnel.
● Provide access to tools (e.g., com- puters, video cameras, instruments, brushes and paints) and resources (e.g., magazines, websites, specialists, coaches, mentors) that contribute to your child’s development.
● Expect variations in performance from time to time—give your child appro- priate breathing room.
● Provide opportunities for relaxation and rest from demanding schedules.
● Continue to encourage involvement with peers who have similar interests and aptitudes.
Tips for General Education Classroom Teachers
● Provide a range of activities for stu- dents with varying abilities.
● Provide opportunities for students who are gifted to deal with real prob- lems or develop actual products.
● Give opportunities for genuine enrich- ment activities, not just more work— collaborate with professional peers within your discipline and others in making challenging and engaging ac- tivities available.
● Remember that giftedness manifests itself in many ways. Determine how various types of giftedness may be ex- pressed in your content domain.
● Help to eliminate the conflicting and confusing signals about career choices and fields of study that are often given to young women who are gifted.
Tips for School Personnel
● To the degree possible, provide a va- riety of curriculum options, activities, clubs, and creative outlets for gifted students.
● Acknowledge and celebrate excel- lence in a variety of performance areas (e.g., leadership, visual and performing arts, academics).
● Continue to use inclusive procedures in identifying individuals who are po- tentially gifted and talented.
● Encourage participation in competi- tive activities in which students are able to use and hone their gifts and talents (e.g., science fairs, debate tour- naments, music competitions).
Tips for Neighbors, Friends, and Potential Employers
● Provide opportunities for students to “shadow” talented professionals, art- ists, and clinicians in your network of employees or friends.
● Volunteer as a professional to work di- rectly with students who are gifted in pursuing a real problem or producing an actual product.
● Become a mentor for a student who is interested in what you do professionally.
● Support the funding of programs for students who are gifted and talented and who come from disadvantaged environments.
● Provide summer internships for stu- dents who have a particular interest in your profession, talent domain, or specialty.
● Serve as an adviser for a high school club or other organization that gives students additional opportunities to pursue talent areas.
Adult Years Tips for Families
● Continue to nurture appropriate independence.
● Celebrate the individual’s accom- plishments and provide support for challenges.
● Let go.
Tips for Educational Personnel ● Exhibit behaviors associated with ef-
fective mentoring.
● Provide meaningful ways to deal with pressure.
● Allow individuals to be themselves.
● Provide adequate time for discussion and interaction—unhurried listening.
● Be aware of other demands in the individuals’ lives.
Tips for Potential Employers ● Establish appropriately high expec-
tations.
● Be sensitive to changing interests and needs.
● Encourage and support employees who wish to mentor young gifted stu- dents on a volunteer basis.
As you may recall from Figure 15.5, Clark identified various structures through which gifted children and youth could be served. One of these is assignment to a special class, supplemented with opportunities for course work integrated with regular classes. This may occur at any level of schooling, elementary through high school. This approach has many advantages. Students have the best of both worlds, academically and socially. Directed independent studies, seminars, mentorships, and cooperative studies are possible through this arrangement. Students who are gifted are able to interact in an intensive fashion with other gifted students, as well as with regular students in their integrated classes. This program also has disadvantages, however. A special class requires a well-prepared, com- petent teacher; many school systems simply do not have sufficient funds to hire specialists in gifted education. Without skilled teachers, special-class instruction or other specialized learning activities may just be more of the general education curriculum.
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Implementing service delivery and designing curricula for gifted students are signifi- cant but rewarding challenges (Burns, Purcell, & Hertberg, 2006; VanTassel-Baska, 2013). They demand the availability of sufficient financial and human resources, flexibility in determining student placement and progress, a focus on high-quality achievement and growth, and a climate of excellence characterized by high standards and significant student engagement (Cooper, 2006). Optimally, delivery systems should facilitate the achievement of specific curricular goals, mesh with state standards, correspond with the types of gifted- ness being nurtured, and prepare students for other experiences yet to come in elementary, secondary, and postsecondary settings (Adams, 2006; Tomlinson, Doubet, & Capper, 2006).
Conditions and strategies associated with successful classrooms and programs for gifted students include teachers who have advanced preparation and knowledge specifi- cally related to gifted education, who relish change, and who enjoy working collaboratively with other professionals. Furthermore, effective teachers believe in differentiated instruc- tion and actively implement it, have access to a variety of strategies for delivering this kind of instruction, and have a disposition for leadership and some autonomy in fulfilling their teaching responsibilities (Firmender, Reis, & Sweeney, 2013; Leppien & Westberg, 2006).
Acceleration “Acceleration is an intervention that moves students through an educa- tion program at rates faster, or at younger ages, than typical. It means matching the level, complexity, and pace of the curriculum to the readiness and motivation of the student” (Colangelo, Assouline, & Gross, 2004a, p. xi). Many forms of acceleration can be pursued and adopted (Colangelo & Assouline, 2009). Acceleration enables gifted students to prog- ress more rapidly and learn at a rate commensurate with their abilities. Early entrance to kindergarten or college, part-time grade acceleration, self-paced instruction, curriculum com- pacting, subject-matter acceleration, and grade skipping are all examples of acceleration (Tomlinson & Hockett, 2008).
Another practice related to grade skipping is telescoped or condensed schooling, which enables students to progress through the content of several grades in a significantly re- duced time. An allied practice is allowing students to progress rapidly through a particular course or content offering. Acceleration of this nature provides students with the sequen- tial, basic learning at a pace commensurate with their abilities. School programs that are ungraded are particularly suitable for telescoping. Regardless of their chronological ages, students may progress through a learning or curriculum sequence that is not constricted by artificial grade boundaries.
Some years ago, eminent researchers published a two-volume series entitled A Nation Deceived: How Schools Hold Back America’s Brightest Students (Colangelo, Assouline, & Gross, 2004a, 2004b). Findings from studies presented in this two-volume series affirmed the value of various forms of acceleration (Colangelo, Assouline, & Gross, 2004b). Consider these prominent findings: Students who experience acceleration are more likely to pursue advanced degrees than those who do not (Kulik, 2004). Virtually all forms of acceleration advance growth in academic achievement (Rogers, 2004). Programs that embrace radical acceleration often produce “extraordinary levels of academic success” (Gross, 2004, p. 94). Social-emotional effects of acceleration are not harmful—as a rule, gifted children and youth tend to be more mature socially and emotionally than their same-age peers (Hoogeveen, van Hell, & Verhoeven, 2014). Whole-grade acceleration is a “low-risk/high-success inter- vention for qualified students” (Colangelo, Assouline, & Lupkowski-Shoplik, 2004, p. 85).
Enrichment Experiences tied to enrichment extend, deepen, broaden, or enrich a per- son’s knowledge (Tomlinson & Hockett, 2008). Music appreciation, foreign languages, and mythology are enrichment courses that are added to a student’s curriculum and are usually not any more difficult than other classes in which the student is involved. Other examples of enrichment involve experiences in which the student develops sophisticated thinking skills (i.e., synthesis, analysis, interpretation, and evaluation), or has opportunities to master ad- vanced concepts in a particular subject area. Some forms of enrichment are actually types of acceleration. A student whose enrichment involves fully pursuing mathematical concepts that are well beyond his or her present grade level is experiencing a form of acceleration. Obviously, the two approaches are interrelated.
Standard 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
Acceleration A process whereby students are allowed to achieve at a rate that is consistent with their capacity, achievement, and interests.
Enrichment Educational experiences for gifted students that enhance their think- ing skills and extend their knowl- edge in various areas.
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15 – 6 I N T E R V E N T I O N S A N D T R E AT M E N T F O R P E O P L E W H O A R E G I F T E D, C R E AT I V E , A N D TA L E N T E D 417
Enrichment is the most common administrative approach to serving gifted students. It is also the most abused approach because it is often applied in name only and in a sporadic fashion, without well-delineated objectives or rationale. There are also other problems with the enrichment approach. It is often implemented superficially, as a token response to the demands of parents. Some professionals view enrichment activities as periods devoted to educational trivia or to instruction heavy in student assignments but light in content. Quality enrichment programs are characterized by carefully selected activities, modules, or units; challenging but not overwhelming assignments; and evaluations that are rigorous yet fair. Additionally, good enrichment programs focus on thoughtful and careful plans for student learning and on engaging activities that stress higher-order thinking and ap- plication skills. Current enrichment practices make full use of the capacities of the Internet, using wikis, blogs, podcasts, and aggregators for collecting information and completing real-world products and research (Eckstein, 2009). The nearby Assistive Technology fea- ture, “Renzulli Learning: Differentiation Engine,” shows how a specialized database can provide personalized learning options for gifted students.
How Grade Skipping Changed Everything I’ve only been knee-deep in the world of gifted and talented education for three- plus years. Prior to that, my exposure was somewhat minor. I read scores of parenting books (some on gifted chil- dren), and we had both girls tested for programming at the Center for Talent Development at Northwestern Univer- sity. We also considered sending them to Quest Academy in Palatine, Illinois, prior to our move to Colorado. How- ever, it wasn’t until this summer that we heard the words about our DD10 (dear- est daughter who is 10), “She’s an excel- lent candidate for a grade skip, and she wants to. …”
Then, a week or so later, the same sce- nario repeated itself with my younger daughter at the Gifted Development Center in Denver, Colorado. “She, too, would be a prime candidate for acceleration.”
My first reaction was, “Really? Are you serious?” For one, I thought acceleration was primarily geared toward early en- trance to kindergarten and profoundly gifted kids entering college. Our two daughters, ages 9 and 10, were smack dab in the middle of elementary school. Did people really grade skip at this junc- ture? I had loads of questions:
● How will we know if it’s the right decision?
● What happens if one skips and the other one doesn’t want to?
● What about the fact that one daugh- ter doesn’t seem to be particularly fond of school? She’s not even get- ting top marks.
● What about my perfectionist daugh- ter? Will it be too challenging for her?
● What about socially? Are they ma- ture enough to handle a skip?
● Will the school be amenable? How do I even initiate the process of dis- cussing acceleration?
● Should we be concerned that there are equally bright students (perhaps even more advanced) in their current classes? They do have peers. Shouldn’t they simply stay where they are?
● Will they feel too much pressure? Is this just a novel idea that will wear off when the work seems harder?
● What about learning gaps? What happens if they don’t know what they’re supposed to learn about Colorado history and/or certain sci- ence requirements?
● What if they start and then hate it?
Thankfully, we got all of these questions answered and then some. Between Dr. Linda Silverman, Barbara (“Bobbie”) Jackson Gilman, and Kim Boham at the
Gifted Development Center, we not only discussed each question thoroughly, but we also learned an extraordinary amount about research on accelera- tion, how vital it is for the students (not parents) to initiate the idea, and how to advocate with the school to ensure the best possible outcomes.
We’re now several months into the school year, and I must say, the grade skips have had such an extraordinarily positive impact on both girls. We’re fortunate that the receiving teachers welcomed the girls with open arms and understanding. The principal, GT [gifted and talented] teacher, GT coor- dinator, and counselor proved so sup- portive and insightful. The adjustment has been much smoother than I antici- pated. DD10 has confidence navigating the halls of middle school and has made good friends. She even went to her first dance right before Halloween! DD09 has finally gotten comfortable with not immediately knowing the answers in class and is developing much more of a growth mind-set. She says this is her favorite year of school by far.
SOURCE: Adapted from Mersino, Deborah. (2012). “How Grade Skipping Changed Everything.” Ingenious: Strategic Communication, Gifted Perspective (blog). Copyright © Deborah Mersino. Reprinted with permission. www .ingeniosus.net/archives/category/acceleration.
LEARNING THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA
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Enrichment may include such activities as exploring exciting topics not normally pur- sued in the general curriculum, group-centered activities that focus on cognitive or affec- tive skills and/or processes, and small-group investigations of actual, real-life problems. The keys to these endeavors are high student interest, excellent teaching, and superb mentoring.
There is a paucity of systematic experimental research on enrichment programs. Despite many of the limitations of current and past research, evidence supports the effectiveness of enrichment, particularly when it is delivered to specific ability groups and when the content and rigor of the curriculum coincide with the abilities of the targeted students.
Enrichment activities do not appear to detract from the success students experience on regularly administered achievement tests. Sociometric data on students who are pulled out of general education classrooms for enrichment activities are also positive. Students do not appear to suffer socially from involvement in enrichment programs that take place outside their general education classrooms. Acceleration and enrichment are complementary parts of curricular and service delivery systems for gifted children and youth.
Special Programs and Schools Programs designed to nurture the talents of individuals in nonacademic and academic areas, such as the visual and performing arts and mathematics, have grown rapidly in recent years (Olszewski-Kubilius & Lee, 2008). Students involved in these programs frequently spend half their school day working in academic subjects and the other half in arts studies. Often an independent institution provides the arts instruction, but some school systems maintain their own separate schools. Most programs provide training in the visual and performing arts, but a few emphasize instruction in creative writing, motion picture and television production, and photography. There are also residential schools for gifted students who specialize in developing stellar academic achievement and growth (Coleman, 2005). Also, distance education is beginning to play a major role in providing challenging, advanced, and stimulating learning experi- ences to gifted children and youth (Olszewski-Kubilius & Lee, 2008).
So-called governor’s schools (distinctive summer programs generally held at university sites), talent identification programs, and specialized residential schools or high schools in various states also provide valuable opportunities for students who are talented and academically gifted (Olszewski-Kubilius & Lee, 2008). Competitively selected students are provided with curricular experiences that are closely tailored to their individual aptitudes and interests. These schools provide unique opportunities for young people to develop strong friendships and support networks that contribute to their social and emotional well- being as well as their talent development (McHugh, 2006). Faculties for these schools are meticulously selected for their competence in various areas and for their ability to stimulate,
Renzulli Learning: Differentiation Engine
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
● Unique, differentiated activities
● Engaging, interest-based resources
● Assessment questions
● Teacher-created questions
SOURCE: Adapted from Renzulli Learning. (2012). “Dif fer- entiation Engine.” Retrieved March 17, 2012, from www .renzullilearning.com/ToolsAndServices/dif ferentiation engine.aspx.
Because children learn more when in- struction is tailored to their abilities and interests, one of the most effective— and most challenging—pedagogic practices is differentiating instruction. For teachers, Renzulli Learning makes differentiating as easy as choosing op- tions from three series of drop-down menus concerning subject, topic, as- sessment preferences, and due date. This unique engine allows educators to differentiate automatically in three
easy steps—for all grades, abilities, and subjects.
Based on student information from the Renzulli Profiler as well as the teacher’s input, the Differentiation Engine selects from more than 25,000 activities, building Web-based les- sons. When students log into Renzulli Learning, they see a unique, person- alized lesson library filled with the following:
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motivate, and engage students. However, these schools and special programs are few and serve only a small number of the students who would profit from them.
During the school years, parents can continue to encourage their children’s develop- ment by providing opportunities that correspond to their strengths and interests. The simple identification games played during the preschool period become more complex and demanding. Discussions frequently take place with peers and other interesting adults in addition to parents. Parents help their children move to higher levels of learning by asking questions that involve analysis (comparing and contrasting ideas), synthesis (integrating and combining ideas into new and novel forms), and evaluation (judging and disputing books, newspaper articles, etc.). Parents can also help by
● furnishing books and reading materials on a broad range of topics; ● providing appropriate equipment as various interests surface (e.g., microscopes,
musical instruments, art materials); ● providing access to various technologies (computers, sensors, GPS devices, etc.); ● encouraging regular trips to public libraries and other resource centers; ● providing opportunities for participation in cultural events, lectures, and exhibits; ● encouraging participation in extracurricular and community activities outside the
home; and ● fostering relationships with potential mentors and other resource people in the com-
munity. (Rimm, 2008; Robinson, Shore, & Enersen, 2007)
15-6c Adolescent Education and Transition to Adulthood Programs for gifted adolescents include those previously described, in addition to providing career education, career guidance, and counseling as essential components of a comprehen- sive program (Liu, Shepherd, & Nicpon, 2008; North, 2007; Rimm, 2008; Robinson, Shore, & Enersen, 2007). Ultimately, career education activities and counseling are designed to help students make educational, occupational, and personal decisions. Because of their mul- tipotentiality (their capacity for doing so many things well), it is difficult for some gifted students to make educational and career choices.
Differentiated learning experiences give elementary and middle school students op- portunities to investigate and explore (Benjamin, 2013). When gifted middle school and high school students were asked to comment about teachers who encouraged them to learn at high levels, they responded with the following: “They personally ‘zoom in’ on you and your work and help you learn at a different level. They expect a high level of performance from you. They give me stimulating questions to answer and something new to learn. If the teacher is excited and passionate about his or her subject, it makes it much easier for me to put in a lot of effort into whatever I’m doing” (Roberts, 2008, p. 249). Many oppor- tunities are career-related and designed to help students understand what it might be like to be a zoologist, neurosurgeon, or filmmaker. What are the time demands? How stressful is the profession or occupation? Students also become familiar with the preparation and effort necessary for work in these fields. For gifted students in the elementary grades, these explorations often take place on Saturdays or weekends. They help such students understand themselves, their talents, and the essential experiences needed for entry into specific fields of advanced study or practice.
As students mature both cognitively and physically, the scope of their career educa- tion activities becomes more sophisticated and varied. In group meetings, gifted students and talented professionals may discuss the factors that influenced a scientist or group of researchers to pursue a given problem or conduct experiments that led to important discoveries or products. Condensed programming found at the high school level includes earning credit through examination, enrolling in extra courses for early graduation, re- ducing or eliminating certain course work, enrolling in intensive summer programs, and taking advanced placement courses while completing high school requirements. Many of these options enable students to enter college early or begin bachelor programs with other advanced students. Many students who are gifted are ready for college-level course work
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at age 14, 15, or 16—and some even at younger ages. Some students of unusually high abilities are prepared for college-level experiences prior to age 14.
Mentoring Some students are provided opportunities to work directly with research scientists, artists, musicians, or other professionals. Students may spend as many as three or four hours a day, two days a week, in laboratory facilities, mentored by scientists and pro- fessionals. Other students rely on intensive workshops or summer programs in which they are exposed to specialized careers through internships and individually tailored instruction.
The benefits of mentoring for gifted students are numerous. Students have sophisti- cated learning experiences that are highly motivating and stimulating. They gain invalu- able opportunities to explore careers and to confirm their commitment to certain areas of study or reexamine their interests. Mentoring experiences may affirm potential in un- derachieving students or students with disabilities—potential that was not being tapped through conventional means. Mentoring may also promote the development of self-reliance, specific interpersonal skills, and lifelong, productive friendships.
Career Choices and Challenges Career interests, values, and dispositions ap- pear to crystallize early in gifted students. In fact, their interests are neither broader nor more restricted than those of their classmates. Some gifted students know quite early what paths they will follow in postsecondary schooling. These paths often lead to careers in engi- neering, health professions, and physical sciences.
Counseling programs are particularly helpful to adolescents who are gifted. Often they know more about their academic content than they know about themselves. As gifted stu- dents come to understand themselves, their capacities, and their interests more fully, they will make better choices in selecting courses of study and professional careers.
Family counseling may also be helpful to parents and other family members. Problems caused by excessive or inappropriate parental expectations may need to be addressed in a family context. Counselors and therapists may help parents develop realistic expectations consistent with their child’s abilities, aspirations, and true interests. As with other exception- alities, counseling services are best provided through interdisciplinary/collaborative efforts.
15-6d Problems and Challenges of Giftedness Students who are gifted must cope with a number of problems. One problem is expecta- tions—the expectations they have of themselves and those expectations that parents, teach- ers, and others have explicitly and implicitly imposed upon them (Berlin, 2009). Students who are gifted frequently feel an inordinate amount of pressure to achieve high grades or to select particular professions. They often feel obligated or duty-bound to achieve excellence in every area, a syndrome called perfectionism. Sadly, such pressure can foster a kind of conformity and prevent students from selecting avenues of endeavor that truly fit them and reflect their personal interests.
Several social-emotional needs that differentiate students who are gifted from their same-age peers have been identified:
● Understanding how they are different from and how they are similar to their peers ● Appreciating and valuing their own uniqueness as well as that of others ● Understanding and developing relationship skills ● Developing and valuing their high-level sensitivity ● Gaining a realistic understanding of their own abilities and talents ● Identifying ways of nurturing and developing their own abilities and talents ● Adequately distinguishing between the pursuit of excellence and the pursuit of
perfection ● Developing behaviors associated with negotiation and compromise (VanTassel-
Baska, 1989)
Students who are gifted need ongoing and continual access to adult role models who have interests and abilities that parallel theirs; the importance of these role models cannot
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
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be overstated. Role models are particularly important for gifted students who grow up and receive their schooling in rural and remote areas. Such students often complete their public schooling without the benefit of having a mentor or professional person with whom they can talk or discuss various educational and career-related issues. By using the Internet and telementoring, some students who live in rural or remote communities now have ac- cess to mentoring at a distance.
15-6e Historically Neglected Groups Girls and individuals with disabilities are less likely to be recognized as gifted and talented for a variety of reasons. Some girls wish to hide their giftedness, believing that their social prospects with girls as well as boys will be diminished. Thus, they hide or do not fully use their remarkable capacities or talents. With regard to children and youth with disabilities who are also gifted, who are twice exceptional, we are still uncovering means for assessing and calibrating their giftedness.
Females Girls usually tend to deny their giftedness and value their academic abilities lower than boys (Robinson, Shore, & Enersen, 2007). Also, the number of girls identified as gifted appears to decline with age. This phenomenon is surprising when we realize that girls tend to walk and talk earlier than their male counterparts; that girls, as a group, read earlier; that girls score higher than boys on IQ tests during the preschool years; and that the grade- point averages of girls during the elementary years are higher than those of boys.
Just exactly what happens to girls? Is the decline in the number of girls identified as gifted related to their socialization? Does some innate physiological or biological mecha- nism account for this decline? Why do some gifted females fail to realize their potential? To what extent do value conflicts about women’s roles contribute to mixed achievement in gifted women? The answers to these and other important questions are gradually emerging.
Standard 1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
What a Colossal Loss!
He started reading as a toddler, played piano at age 3, and delivered a high school commencement speech in cap and gown when he was just 10—his eyes barely visible over the podium.
Brandenn Bremmer was a child prodigy: He composed and recorded music, won piano competitions, breezed through college courses with an off-the-charts IQ, and mastered everything from ar- chery to photography, hurtling through life precociously.
Then Brandenn was found dead in his Nebraska home from an apparent self- inflicted gunshot wound to his head.
He was just 14. He left no note.
“Sometimes we wonder if maybe the physical, earthly world didn’t offer him enough challenges and he felt it was time to move on and do some- thing great,” his mother, Patricia, said
from the family home in Venango, Nebraska, a few miles from the Colo- rado border.
Brandenn showed no signs of depres- sion, she said. He had just shown his family the art for the cover of his new CD that was about to be released.
He was, according to his family and teachers, an extraordinary blend of fun- loving child and serious adult. He loved Harry Potter and Mozart. He watched cartoons and enjoyed video games, but gave classical piano concerts for hundreds of people—without a hint of stage fright.
“He wasn’t just talented, he was just a really nice young man,” said David Wohl, an assistant professor at Colorado State University, where Brandenn studied music after high school. “He had an easy smile. He really was unpretentious.”
Patricia Bremmer—who writes myster- ies and has long raised dogs with her husband, Martin—said they both knew their son was special from the moment he was born. The brown-haired, blue- eyed boy was reading when he was 15 months old and entering classical piano competitions by age 4.
“He was born an adult,” his mother said. “We just watched his body grow bigger.”
He scored 178 on one IQ test—a test his mother said he was too bored to finish.
Question for Reflection What potential steps, if any, could have been taken to prevent this colossal tragedy?
SOURCE: Adapted from Cohen, S. (2005). Child Prodigy’s Apparent Suicide: “He Knew He Had To Leave,” Mother Says. New York: Associated Press, March 19. Copyright © 2005 Associated Press. Reprinted with permission.
REFLECT ON THIS
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One of the explanations given for this decline is the gender-specific socialization that girls receive. Behaviors associated with self-efficacy, competitiveness, risk taking, and independence are not generally encouraged in girls. Behaviors that are generally fostered in girls include dependence, cooperation, conformity, and nurturing. One researcher views the elimination of independent behaviors in girls as being the most damaging aspect of their socialization (Silverman, 1986). Rather than delighting in their emerging skills, talents, and capacities, girls tend to mask or hide them from others (Manning & Bestnoy, 2008).
More recent research suggests that girls who develop social self-esteem, “the belief that one has the ability to act effectively and to make decisions independently,” are more likely to realize their potential (Davis & Rimm, 2004). Without independence, girls’ ability to de- velop high levels of creativity, achievement, and leadership is severely limited. Overcoming the impact of sociocultural influences requires carefully applied interventions, counseling, and heightened levels of awareness on the part of parents, teachers, and counselors.
Females who are gifted and talented experience additional problems, including fear of appearing “unfeminine” or unattractive when competing with males; competition between marital and career aspirations; stress induced by traditional, cultural, and societal expecta- tions; and self-imposed and/or culturally imposed restrictions related to educational and occupational choices (Davis, Rimm, & Siegle, 2011). Although many of these problems are far from being resolved at this point, some progress is being made. Women in vastly greater numbers are successfully entering professions men traditionally pursued.
Fortunately, multiple role assignments are emerging in many families, wherein the tasks mothers traditionally performed are shared by all members of the family or are completed by someone outside the family. Cultural expectations are changing; as a result, options for women who are gifted are rapidly expanding.
People with Disabilities: Twice Exceptional For some time, intellectual giftedness has been largely associated with high IQs and high scores on aptitude tests. These tests, by their very nature and structure, measure a limited range of mental abilities. Because of such limitations, they have not been particularly helpful in identifying people with dis- abilities who are intellectually or otherwise gifted. However, people with disabilities such as cerebral palsy, learning disabilities, emotional and behavior disorders, and other disabling conditions can be gifted (Montgomery, 2009; Robinson, Shore, & Enersen, 2007; Sternberg, Jarvin, & Grigorenko, 2011). Helen Keller, Vincent van Gogh, and Ludwig van Beethoven are prime examples of individuals with disabilities who were also gifted. Some theorists and practitioners suggest that as many as 2 percent of individuals with disabilities are gifted.
In this context, the twice exceptional are individuals with outstanding ability or poten- tial who achieve high performance despite a physical, emotional, learning, or chronic health disability. Although many challenges are still associated with identifying individuals with disabilities who are gifted, much progress has been made.
Unfortunately, the giftedness of children with disabilities is often invisible to parents and teachers. Factors critical to the recognition of giftedness include environments that
elicit signs of talent and capacity, and availability of information about the individual’s performance gath- ered from many sources. With regard to these eliciting environments, it is important that children be given op- portunities to perform tasks on which their disabling condition is no impediment (Baum, Schader, & Hebert, 2014). Also, if and when tests of mental ability are used, they must be appropriately adapted, both in administra- tion and scoring. Furthermore, the identification screen- ing should occur at regular intervals. Some children with disabilities change dramatically with appropriate instruction and related assistive technologies. The de- velopmental delays present in children with disabilities and the disabilities themselves pose the greatest chal- lenges to identification efforts (Baum, 2004; Davis & Rimm, 2004).
Photo 15.3 Stevie Wonder is a twice exceptional individual with remarkable musical talents.
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15 – 6 I N T E R V E N T I O N S A N D T R E AT M E N T F O R P E O P L E W H O A R E G I F T E D, C R E AT I V E , A N D TA L E N T E D 423
Differential education for children with disabilities who are gifted is still in its infancy. A great deal of progress has been made, particularly in the adaptive uses of computers and related technologies, but much remains to be done. Additionally, a great deal is still unknown about the service delivery systems and materials that are best suited for these individuals. One of the best approaches parents and teachers can take with gifted children and youth with disabilities is fostering self-confidence, independence, and a sense of per- sonal efficacy—I have what it takes to learn, to succeed, to manage my life, and to realize success (Manning & Bestnoy, 2008).
Children and Youth from Diverse Cultural, Linguistic, Ethnic, and Economic Backgrounds Rarely are culturally diverse and economically disadvan- taged youth identified as gifted (Ford, Coleman, & Davis, 2014; Graham, 2009). These youth are dramatically underrepresented in programs for the gifted and talented (Gibbons, Pelchar, & Cochran, 2012; King, Kozleski, & Lansdowne, 2009; Matthews & Shaunessy, 2008). This underrepresentation is a function of several factors: racism; social and economic inequities; excessive reliance on testing and test scores that may not accurately capture potential and talent in these youth; IQ-based definitions of giftedness; identification practices based on achievement test scores; and a lack of teacher referrals of children for gifted education pro- grams (Bireda, 2011; Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement, 2008; Warwick & Matthews, 2009). Social and motivational variables also contribute to these di- minished numbers, particularly with African American students who are pressured to “act black”—giving a false appearance of not being smart, acting dumb, exhibiting high levels of aggressiveness, being antiauthority, and other related behaviors (Graham 2009). Some dis- tricts are now using a checklist and other appropriate identification measures to help teachers and others look more inclusively and broadly for potentially gifted students (see Figure 15.6).
VERBAL ABILITIES 1. Has an expanded vocabulary 2. Asks unusual questions to find out more information 3. Expresses ideas well 4. Elaborates on questions for information
LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS 5. Exhibits quick mastery of skills 6. Has long-term recall of information 7. Has interest in how things work 8. Has the ability to see relationships and make connections 9. Is able to retain more information with less repetition 10. Displays creativeness, originality, putting things and
ideas together in novel ways 11. Has a lot of information about one topic 12. Has a questioning attitude 13. Signals perfectionist tendencies 14. Likes to solve puzzles and trick questions 15. Has a wide range of interests 16. Performs well mathematically 17. Stays with a project until it is completed
MOTIVATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS 18. Sets high standards for self 19. Is inquisitive 20. Has a tendency to lose awareness of time/intense
concentration 21. Becomes easily impatient with drill-and-routine
procedures 22. Is persistent
23. Has keen powers of observation 24. Requires little direction
SOCIAL ABILITIES 25. Tends to dominate peers or situation 26. Has unusual, often highly developed sense of humor 27. Is independent 28. Often finds and corrects own or others’ mistakes 29. Is anxious to complete tasks 30. Is often overly sensitive
LEADERSHIP 31. Adapts readily to new situations 32. Is well liked by classmates and demonstrates leadership 33. Carries responsibility well 34. Is self-confident with own age group 35. Is cooperative with teacher and classmates
CREATIVITY 36. Makes up games and activities displaying imagination 37. Expresses original ideas in other ways 38. Demonstrates ability to express feelings and emotions 39. Is articulate in role playing and storytelling 40. Displays a richness in imagery and informal language 41. Demonstrates ability in fine or practical arts
SOURCE: Adapted from Project Bright Horizon, Washington Elemen- tary School District, Glendale, Arizona. Retrieved May 8, 2009, from www.ade.az.gov/asd/gifted/downloads/Project%20 BrightHorizon- GiftedCharacteristicsChecklist.pdf.
Figure 15.6 Javits Gifted Characteristics Checklist for Underrepresented Populations
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Behaviors that are receiving increased attention in identifying giftedness in diverse children and youth are resilience, acculturation, code switching, and bilingualism. Chil- dren who are diverse in some fashion, who maintain positive views of themselves despite challenging problems and environments, may be candidates for gifted programs. The same could be said of children who adjust more quickly, that is, acculturate more rapidly than same-age peers to their surrounding environments. With regard to code switching and bilingualism, children who are adept in their heritage language and who develop another language, and who use both with skill, may be candidates for gifted programs and related activities (Matthews & Shaunessy, 2008). As suggested at the beginning of this chapter, we are now focusing more on inclusive practices in identifying giftedness and are paying more attention to talent development in children and youth who are diverse in some fashion (Harris, Plucker, Rapp, & Marinez, 2009; Horowitz, 2009; Matthews & Shaunessy, 2008; VanTassel-Baska, 2009).
Effective instructional programs for children and adolescents who are disadvantaged and gifted have several key components. First, the teachers in these programs are well trained in adapting and differentiating instruction for these students, providing culturally responsive teaching and content (Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improve- ment, 2008; Robinson, Shore, & Enersen, 2007). These teachers understand learning pref- erences, how to build and capitalize on students’ interests, and how to maximize students’ affective, cognitive, and ethical capacities. In addition to providing the typical curricular options for enrichment, acceleration, and talent development, the best programs for these children and youth embrace and celebrate ethnic diversity, provide extracurricular cultural enrichment, attend to differences in learning styles, provide counseling, supply mentoring, create culturally responsive classrooms, foster parent support groups and community con- nections, provide supportive and stimulating tutoring, and give these children and youth access to significant role models (Bireda, 2011; Sosniak & Gabelko, 2008).
There is general agreement that programs for these children and youth should begin early and should be tailored to the needs and interests of each identified child. They should focus on individual potentialities rather than deficits and should help parents and oth- ers understand their roles in fostering giftedness and talent development (Baum, 2004; Sosniak & Gabelko, 2008). Often, the emphasis in the early years is on reading instruction, language development, and foundation skills. Other key components include experiential education that provides children with many opportunities for hands-on learning, activi- ties that foster self-expression, plentiful use of mentors and role models who represent the child’s cultural or ethnic group, involvement of the community, and counseling throughout the school years that gives serious consideration to the cultural values of the family and the child who is gifted.
Looking Toward a Bright Future In spite of challenging problems in providing all gifted children and youth with appropri- ate opportunities for talent development, acceleration, and enrichment, there is cause for optimism on several fronts. We are beginning to see concerted efforts in identifying all potentially gifted children and youth. We are broadening the ways in which we seek to identify these children and youth. These efforts are particularly pronounced in recognizing and developing talent and capacity in historically neglected groups: girls, children and youth with disabilities (the twice exceptional), and young people from diverse cultural, linguistic, ethnic, and economic backgrounds.
Recent research is also helping teachers and other professionals understand the under- served and underrepresented gifted populations more thoroughly—recognizing hindrances to talent and capacity development, the vital role of motivation or lack thereof, and cultural factors that contribute to or interfere with talent development. Lastly, we are beginning to understand the trajectory of giftedness over a lifespan, giving us a reasonably complete picture of what it takes to nurture and sustain gifted children, youth, and adults who have the potential to contribute significantly on so many important fronts.
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15-1 Describe how the lives of people who are gifted, creative, and talented have changed since the advent of IDEA.
● Formerly referred to as gifted individuals, researchers and prac- titioners now include creative and talented as descriptors not identified by traditional tests of intelligence. Programs now tar- get creativity and exceptional talents along with high IQ.
● IDEA does not require services for children and youth who are gifted, creative, or talented; however, identifying and serving these individuals has increased greatly since the original pas- sage of IDEA in 1975.
● Twenty-six states mandate services for gifted students, but funding affects the quality and types of programs offered.
● Talent development will likely replace gifted education in the coming years, with efforts directed toward identifying and developing intellectual gifts, creative abilities, and talents.
15-2 Explain the various definitions and classifica- tions of gifted, creative, and talented.
● Definitions are essential for identifying those who will be served, for calculating funding, and for discussion among researchers and practitioners.
● The current definition comes from the National Association for Gifted Children (2012):
Students, children, or youth who give evidence of high achieve- ment capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services and activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities.
15-3 Describe the characteristics and prevalence of children and youth who are gifted, creative, and talented.
● Children and youth with outstanding talent perform or show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accom- plishment when compared with others of their age, experience, or environment.
● Gifted children and youth exhibit high performance capability in intellectual, creative, and/or artistic areas, possess an unusual leadership capacity, or excel in specific academic fields.
● Gifted children and youth require services or activities that schools do not ordinarily provide.
● Outstanding talents are present in children and youth from all cultural groups, across all economic strata, and in all areas of human endeavor.
15-4 List the causes associated with gifts and talents. ● Genetic endowment certainly contributes to giftedness. ● Environmental stimulation provided by parents, teachers, coaches, tutors, and others contributes significantly to the emergence of giftedness.
● The interaction of innate abilities with environmental influences and encouragement fosters the development and expression of giftedness.
15-5 Describe the assessment procedures used to identify gifts and talents in children and youth.
● Developmental checklists and scales ● Parent and teacher inventories ● Intelligence and achievement tests ● Creativity tests ● Other diverse observational information provided by parents, grandparents, and other knowledgeable adults involved in the gifted child’s life
15-6 Describe the different interventions for children and youth with gifts and talents from early childhood through adulthood.
● Naturally interacting with and stimulating young children dur- ing bathing, feeding, and dressing young children
● Providing appropriate sensory experiences: cuddling, tickling, and touching
● Developing trust: establishing appropriate regimens, provid- ing predictability in schedules and routines, and giving positive support for new experiences and learning
● Lots of language—lots of talking ● Providing experiences with appropriate picture books and other related materials—the reading of stories, talking about stories, having young children make predictions about what will happen next
● Having children tell their own stories and capturing them in print—establishing the rudiments of written language
● Providing many kinds of experiences—visits to different places, making things, engaging in dress-up activities—giving children opportunities for spontaneous and rich play
● Differentiated instruction: an approach to gifted education that attends to the natural abilities and interests of children and adolescents
● Enrichment: activities designed to extend, deepen, broaden, or enrich a person’s knowledge
● Acceleration: allowing students to move through content and related experiences at a rate that is commensurate with their abilities and capacities
● Governor’s schools: highly specialized programs, generally offered at or through universities, to encourage talent develop- ment, to give able students opportunities to connect with other talented students, and to work with skilled content specialists and mentors
● Mentoring: allowing gifted students to work with carefully se- lected specialists or experts who provide ongoing direction and experiences in a given talent or academic domain
Chapter Review
C H A P T E R R E V I E W
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Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Standards to Accompany Chapter 15
If you are thinking about a career in special education, you should know that many states use national standards developed by the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) to assess a teacher candidate’s knowledge and skills for working with students with disabilities. See a complete listing of the seven CEC Content Standards on the inside cover of this text.
1 Learner Development and Individual Learning Differences
2 Learning Environments 4 Assessment 5 Instructional Planning and Strategies
Mastery Activities and Assignments To master the content within this chapter, complete the following activities and assignments: 1. Complete a written test of the chapter’s content. If your
instructor requires a written test of your content knowl- edge for this chapter, keep a copy for your portfolio.
2. Review the Case Study on Embracing Diversity, “Don- Wook Shin,” and respond in writing to the Application
Questions. Keep a copy of the Case Study and your written response for your portfolio.
3. Participate in a community service learning activity. Community service is a valuable way to enhance your learning experience. Develop a reflective journal of the service learning experience for your portfolio.
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Author Index AAIDD, 206, 208 Aarts, R., 245, 247 Abbeduto, L., 126 Abbott, L., 165 Abedi, J., 211 Abery, B. H, 302 Abrahams, B. E., 272 Abrams, D. A., 164 Abt Associates, 294 Achenbach, T. M., 191 Adams, C., 253, 254 Adams, C. M., 416 Adelman, H. S., 188, 193 Adkins, K. E., 233, 237, 239, 240 Agran, M., 87 Aguilar, E., 106 Aguinaga, A., 274 Ahlgrim-Delzell, L. A., 211, 219 Ahmed, Y., 152 AIDS.gov, 368 Aiello, R., 278 Akst, L. M., 257 Akullian, J., 281 Alant, E., 102 Alba, A., 376 Alberto, P. A., 164, 165, 166 Albin, R. W., 61, 142, 299 Albright, K., 164 Alesi, M., 160 Alexander, C. P., 156 Alexander, J. L., 278 Alexander, K. C., 269, 275 Alexander Graham Bell
Academy, 335 Algozzine, B., 158 Algozzine, R., 183 Allen, D. A., 252 Allen, K. D., 392 Allen, M. M., 247 Allen, P., 89 Allen-DeBoer, R. A., 186 Allred, Christie, 130 Allred, D., 137 Almeida, D. M., 131 Alper, S., 306 Altevogt, B. M., 363 Alvarez, H. K., 114 Amanti, C., 96, 108, 111 American Academy for Cerebral
Palsy and Developmental Medicine, 356
American Academy of Pediatrics, 369
American Diabetes Association, 373, 374
American Federation of Teachers, 356
American Foundation for the Blind, 346
American Printing House for the Blind, Inc., 328
American Psychiatric Asso- ciation, 152, 180, 208, 236, 243, 248, 249, 251, 252, 253, 265, 269, 271, 390
American Psychological Asso- ciation, 237, 242, 248
American Speech-Language- Hearing Association, 160, 236, 259, 332
Anastopoulos, A. D., 391 Anckarsater, H., 276 Anderko, L., 161
Andershed, H., 187 Anderson, C. J., 411 Anderson, C. M., 70, 284 Anderson, D., 172, 173 Anderson, D. H., 281 Anderson, K. G, 187 Anderson, P. J., 161 Anderson, V., 185 Andrews, M. E., 126 Ang, R. P., 281 Anghel, D., 321, 327 Anshel, D. J., 392 Anthony, L., 269, 275 Antonellis, S., 235, 236 Antshel, K. M., 392 Anwar, M., 355 APA, 180, 181 Aragon, S., 144 Aratani, Y., 99 The ARC, 214, 298, 306 Archer, A. L., 166 Argyropoulos, V. S., 326 Arias, M. B., 108, 110, 111 Aristotle, 9 Armbruster, B. B., 166 Armstrong, I., 161 Arnold, L. E., 391 Arrendondo, P., 98 Arter, P. S., 189, 190 Arthur-Kelly, M., 73 Artiles, A. J., 98, 105, 106, 112,
113, 115, 192 Arzouan, Y., 156 ASHA, 243, 248, 249, 253 Ashbaker, B. Y., 286 Ashkenazi, S., 164 ASPE Issue Brief, 100 Asperger, H., 264 Assouline, S., 416 Assouline, S. G., 416 Asthma and Allergy Founda-
tion of America, 369, 370 August, D., 116 Auinger, P., 161 Ault, M. M., 298 Autism Speaks, 276, 286, 287 Aviezer, A., 281 Axelrod, S., 166 Ayres, K. M., 278
Babbitt, B. C., 81 Babcock, T., 392 Babinski, D. E., 392 Baca, L. M., 115 Bacarese-Hamilton, M., 295 Baden, R., 194, 195 Baer, R. M., 169, 170, 171 Bagnato, S., 299 Bailey, D. H., 159 Baird, G., 159, 272 Baker, B. L., 126, 131,
135, 144 Baker, C. N., 276 Baker, D., 52 Baker, K. L., 154 Baker, M., 165 Baker, R., 61 Baker, S. J., 166 Baker-Ericzén, M. J., 126 Bakken, J. P., 82 Bal, A., 52, 192 Balcazar, F. E., 169
Baldridge, M., 243 Baldwin, J. R., 98 Ball, J. W., 367 Bambara, L. M., 87, 142 Banda, D. R., 145 Banks, J. A., 97, 98, 101, 108 Banks, M. E., 144, 145 Banks, P., 169 Bantz, J., 198 Baranowski, M. D., 138 Barbaresi, W. J., 389, 391 Barber, B. K., 187 Barclay, L. A., 327 Barker, E. D., 187 Barkley, R. A., 389, 391, 392 Barnard, H., 323 Barnes, M. A., 165 Barnett-Walker, K., 187 Barnum-Martin, L., 102 Baron, R. A., 5 Baron-Cohen, S., 271, 274 Barraga, N. C., 340 Barraza, L., 137 Barrera, M., 102, 106 Barron, D. A., 155 Barron, Judy, 270 Barron, Sean, 270 Barrows, Selena, 8 Barry, E., 173 Bartlett, D. J., 358 Barton-Arwood, S. M., 178, 186 Baskin, A., 126, 129, 132, 138 Bassett, D. S., 190 Bassin, S. A., 392 Bastiaanse, R., 238, 239 Batalova, J., 103 Bateman, C., 389 Batshaw, M., 57, 218, 300,
326, 330 Batstra, L., 391 Battaglia, A. A., 283 Battle, D. E., 247 Baum, N., 126 Baum, S., 422, 424 Baum, S. M., 422 Bauminger, N., 281 Baumle, A. K., 131 Bavelas, J. B., 124 Baxter, C., 128 Bayat, M., 125 Bayley, N., 239 Beach, K. D., 164 Beach, R., 167 Beach, S. D., 161 Beam, A. P., 151, 152 Beard, K. Y., 195, 198 Beauchamp, D., 142 Becerra, T. A., 274 Beck, A., 125 Becker, A., 165 Beegle, G., 141, 142 Beeson, P. M., 233, 242,
243, 246 Begeer, S., 126 Begnoche, D. M., 358 Begum, G. F., 144 Beirne-Smith, M., 162, 210, 211,
212, 219, 295 Beljan, P., 392 Bell, L., 392 Bell, S. M., 156 Bellgrove, M. A, 173 Bellini, S., 281
Bender, H., 187, 188 Bender, W. N., 72, 150, 153,
156, 158, 159, 160, 161, 171, 173
Benitez, D. T., 201 Benjamin, A., 419 Benner, G. J., 184 Bennett, T., 142, 145 Bennette, D., 73 Berg, A. L., 332 Berg, M., 339 Berger, O., 142, 143 Berk, L. E., 57, 218, 300 Berkeley, S., 55, 156, 157, 166 Berlin, J. E., 420 Berninger, V. W., 151, 161 Bernstein, D. K., 235, 236,
238, 245 Berry, J., 32, 53 Bertelli, Y., 138 Besançon, M., 411 Bessel, A. G., 129 Best, S. J., 369 Bestnoy, K. D., 422, 423 Bettelheim, B., 264, 275 Beukelman, D. R., 241 Beuzeron-Mangina, H.,
154, 160 Beyer, J. F, 87 Beyers, S. J., 164 Bhushan, A., 104 Biederman, J., 389 Bierman, K. L., 64 Biervliet, S. V., 362 Bigby, C., 138 Bigge, J. L., 369 Billingsley, G., 172 Billstedt, E., 276 Bindler, R. C., 367 Binet, A., 398 Bingham, A., 127, 128 Birchmeier, Z., 185 Birchwood, J., 389 Bireda, M. R., 423, 424 Bishaw, A., 100 Bishop, B., 184 Bishop, S. L., 131 Bishop, V. E., 299, 341 Biswas, A., 392 Bitterman, A., 277 Blacher, J., 126, 131, 135,
144, 281 Blachnio, A., 248 Blachowicz, C. L. Z., 104,
105, 108 Black, J. M., 164 Blackmountain, L., 142, 144 Blackorby, J., 80, 158 Blaga, O. M., 411 Blair, C., 64 Blakemore, S. D., 172 Blanton, L. P., 171 Block, S., 251 Bloom, B. S., 56 Bloom, P., 269 Blosser, C. G., 372 Bloxsom, C. A. J., 187 Blue, E., 165 Blue-Banning, M., 141, 142 Blumberg, S. J., 276 Boada, R., 159 Bocian, K., 158, 165, 169 Bock, S. J., 172
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AU T H O R I N D E X 485
Bodea, C. A, 275 Bogan, J. E., 186 Bol, S., 269 Bolt, S. E., 72 Bolton, P. F., 271, 272, 275 Bondy, A., 281 Boon, R. T., 167 Boone, D. R., 256 Borg, W. R., 152 Borge, A. I. H., 188 Borkowski, J. G., 136 Borland, J. H., 403 Bos, C. S., 55, 68, 69, 70 Boscardin, M. L., 144 Boström, P. K., 131, 134, 135 Bouchard, D., 327 Boucher, J., 269 Boudah, D. J., 166 Boulet, S. L., 173 Bowen, S. K., 162 Bower, E. M., 179 Bowles, S., 165 Bowman-Perrott, L., 168 Boxer, P., 193 Boxmeyer, C. L., 194, 195 Boyce, W. T., 101 Boyd, B., 355 Boyle, C., 168 Boyle, C. A., 173 Boyle, J., 237 Boyraz, G., 125, 131, 132,
142, 143 Braddock, D., 10 Bradshaw, C. P., 284 Brady, M. A., 377 Brams, M., 392 Brandes, J., 32 Branscombe, N. R., 5 Branum-Martin, L., 159 Bratter, J. L., 101 Brauen, M., 211 Brault, Matthew W., 20 Braun, J., 161 Braziel, P. M., 72 Bree, K. D., 129, 392 Breen, K., 193, 198, 199, 200 Brehaut, J. C., 126, 131,
135, 139 Bremer, C. D., 87 Brendgen, M., 188 Bretherton-Furness, J., 248 Brewer, R. D., 190 Brewton, C. M., 284 Breznitz, Z., 159 Briggs, C. J., 409 Brigham, F. J., 186 Brigham Young University, 116 Brinkman, W. B., 168 Brinton, B., 112, 243 Brisk, M. E., 116 Broberg, M., 131, 134, 135 Broitman, J., 154 Brondeel, R., 139 Brooke, V., 143 Brookman-Frazee, L., 126 Brotherson, M., 141 Brotherson, M. J., 139 Brotman, L. M., 195 Brouwer, S., 156 Browder, D., 55, 87 Browder, D. M., 211, 219, 392 Brown, F., 297, 299, 304 Brown, G., 135, 136, 137 Brown, I., 126 Brown, J., 281 Brown, J. D., 172 Brown, L., 294 Brown, M. W., 128 Brown, R. I., 126 Brown, W. H., 187, 190
Brown-Chidsey, R., 144 Brownfeld, J. M., 275 Brownlee, S., 172 Brown v. Board of Education of
Topeka, Kansas, 28 Bruder, M. B., 143, 139 Bruhn, A. L., 168 Brun-Gasca, C., 239 Bruno, A., 102, 105 Bruns, D. A., 269 Bruns, E., 201 Brussow, J., 302 Bruyne, R. D., 362 Bryant, B. R., 72 Bui, Y. N., 144 Buitelaar, J. K., 392 Buka, S. L., 272 Bullock, C. E., 168 Bullock, L. M., 192 Bullough, R. V., 380 Burbidge, J., 125, 133, 135 Burgess, C., 152 Burke, M. D., 168, 183 Burkett, Ellen, 123 Burns, D. E., 416 Bursuck, W. D., 32, 51, 52,
69, 88 Burt, S. A., 187, 391 Burton, C. E., 281 Buschbacher, P., 143 Bussing, R., 392 Butrimaviciute, R., 269 Buttner, G., 150, 152, 154, 160 Buxbaum, J. D., 275 Buxton, R., 206 Buysse, A., 139 Byrne, D., 5 Byrnes, M. A., 32
Cabrera, N. J., 64 Cahan, S., 158 Cahill, B. S., 392 Cahill, S. M., 160 Cai, J., 275 Calderella, P., 142, 189 Calderon, J., 409, 411 Callahan, C. M., 413 Callahan, R. M., 170 Callard-Szulgit, R., 407 Callinan, S., 153 Calzada, E., 195 Cameto, R., 32 Campbell, C., 165 Cannon, L., 269, 275 Capaldi, D. M., 186 Capitani, J., 130 Cappadocia, M., 284 Capper, M. R., 416 Caputi, P., 124, 125 Caraisco, J., 412 Cardy, J. O., 160 Carey, B., 251 Carlo, M., 102 Carlson, C. D., 102, 104 Carlson, E., 277 Carlson, G. A., 184 Carlson, N. R., 18 Carpenter, B., 138 Carpenter, L. A., 274 Carpenter, S., 97 Carr, E. G., 280, 281 Carstens, A., 128, 129 Carta, J. J., 194, 195 Carter, E. W., 87, 143, 144,
169, 186 Carter, N., 286 Carter, N. J., 131, 143, 231, 232 Case, L., 272 Case-Smith, J., 59
Cassidy, D., 50 Cassidy, R. C., 99 Cassidy, V. M., 27 Castek, J., 167 Cattell, R. B., 399, 401 Cavaiuolo, D., 81, 82 Cavanaugh, M., 165 Cavin, M., 87 Center for Applied Special Tech-
nology, 74 Center for Comprehensive
School Reform and Improve- ment, 423, 424
Center on Human Policy at Syracuse University, 21
Center on Teaching and Learn- ing, 104
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 215, 216, 272, 273, 274, 275, 317, 325, 328, 361, 367, 369, 372, 374, 377, 379, 380, 389, 391
Cercone, N., 324 Cerdan, R., 156 Cerebral Palsy Alliance, 357 Cervantes, H. T., 115 Chabon, S. S., 240, 246 Chai, Z., 164 Chambers, C. R., 137, 143, 144 Chan, J. B., 133 Chan, L., 376 Chang, H., 195 Chang, H. J., 358 Chang, S., 248, 249 Chapadjiev, S., 129, 145 Charles, J. M., 274 Charman, T., 272, 274 Chavira, D. A., 257 Chenausky, K., 335 Cheney, D. A., 106 Chesnut, P., 32 Cheung, W. S., 52 Chiarelle, L. A., 358 Child and Adolescent Bipolar
Foundation, 184 Child Care Law Center, 368 Children’s Defense Fund, 216 Ching, T. T., 323, 324 Chinn, P. C., 51, 98, 101, 107,
115, 301 Chiocchetti, A. G., 275 Choo, D. I., 240 Christensen, W. R., 141 Chudnow, R. S., 158, 169 Ciancio, J., 89 Cifu, D. X, 380 Cirino, P. T., 104, 165 Ciullo, S., 164, 168, 172 Clare, M. M., 105 Clark, B., 401, 403, 404 Clark, C. D., 374 Clarke, S., 143 Claxton, G., 401 Cleary, M. J., 161 Cleland, J., 268 Clemow, D. B., 173 Clinkinbeard, S. S., 168, 169 Cloutier, H., 82 Cochran, J. L., 423 Cohen, J., 126, 131, 134, 171 Cohen, S., 421 Cohn, E. R., 240, 246 Cohn, L., 181 Colangelo, N., 416 Colby, S. L., 99 Coleman, L. J., 412, 418 Coleman, M. C., 183 Coleman, M. R., 423 Coleman, T. J., 145 Coll-Black, S., 104
Collier, C., 107, 117 Collier, P., 81 Collier, V. P., 97, 108, 113, 114 Collins, B. C, 89 Colman, I., 187 Colombo, J., 411 Coltheart, M., 157–158 Colvin, G., 397, 408 Combs, M. C., 97, 108, 113, 114 Compassionate Friends, 366 Compton, D. L., 163, 164, 165,
166, 171 Compton, D. R., 131 Comstock, E. J., 391 Conant, J. B., 403 Conley, D. T., 87 Connell, J. E., 279 Connell, N, M., 198 Conner, D. F., 184 Connolly, S. D., 184 Connor, C. M., 164, 165, 166 Connor, R. T., 55, 64 Connors, C., 125 Conroy, M. A., 114, 187, 188,
190, 194, 195 Cook, B., 314 Cook, C., 141 Cook, C. R., 187, 188, 189, 199 Cook, L., 52, 112, 114, 130 Coolidge, F. L., 392 Cooper, C. R., 416 Cooper, J., 235, 239 Cooper, J. L., 99 Cooper, L. L., 165 Cooper, P. D., 143 Cooper-Vince, C., 392 Copeland, S., 88 Corapci, F., 184 Cornell-Swanson, L., 391 Cornett, C., 161 Cornoldi, C., 158 Correa, V. I., 142, 144, 145, 171 Correa-Torres, S. M., 317 Costello, E. J., 391 Courtade-Little, G., 211, 219 Courtwright, P., 330 Cowden, P. A., 160, 163,
168, 170 Cox, A. W., 137, 278, 279 Cox, C., 138 Cox, P. R., 341 Craig, W. M., 185 Cramer, E., 186 Crane, J. L., 58 Crawford-Brooke, E., 102 Cremer, R., 362 Crews, S. D., 187, 188 Crick, 167 Crider, R., 161 Cridland, E. K., 124, 125 Cristol, D., 114 Crockett, M., 81, 90, 209,
226, 305 Crockett, M. A., 57 Crone, D. A., 190 Cronin, K. B., 143 Cross, A., 198 Cross, T. L., 412 Crowe, K., 324 Crowe, Taylor, 278, 284, 285 Crundwell, R. M., 179 Cullinan, D., 179 Cummings, J. G., 185 Cummins, R. A., 128 Cunningham, A. B., 276 Cunningham, E., 153 Cunningham, E. M., 190 Cupples, L., 324 Cuskelly, M., 126, 131,
134, 137
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Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
AU T H O R I N D E X486
Cutri, R., 108 Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, 376
Dadders-Algra, M., 391 Dahlgren, M. E., 105 Dale, E., 284 Dale, Ø., 339 Dale, P. S., 161 Daley, D., 389 Daley, S., 257 Daley, T. C., 277 Dalsgaard, S., 173 Daly, E. M., 190 Daniels, A. M., 276 Daniolos, P., 272 Danis, M., 276 Darley, S., 136, 137, 138 Darling, R. B., 137 Darling, S. M., 139 Darsaklis, V., 172 Das, L., 277 Datchuk, S. M., 157 Davern, L., 299 Davey, B. J., 91 Davis, G. A., 401, 404, 405,
406, 408, 409, 410, 422 Davis, H., 168 Davis, J. L., 183, 280, 423 Davis, J. M., 154 Davis, O. S., 161 Davis, S. D., 188 Davis, T., 220 Daviso, A. W., 169, 170, 171 Davys, D., 135 Dawson, S., 43, 68 Dawson-McClure, S., 195 Day, J., 324 Daymut, J. A., 243 Deacon, S. H., 156 Deaux, K., 97, 108 Deb, S., 392 de Bree, E., 156 deCharms, R., 27 Decker, S., 161 Defense and Veterans Brain
Injury Center, 379 DeFries, J. C., 159 DeHann, R., 403 Delkamiller, J., 53 Dell, A. G., 91 de Marin, S., 168 DeMatteo, F. J., 141 Demir, S., 245, 247 Dempsey, I., 124, 139, 141, 142 Denney, S. C., 169, 170, 171 Department of Homeland
Security, 101 DeRubeis, S., 275 Deshler, D. D., 156 Desoete, A., 158, 161 Destefano, L., 80 Dettmer, P., 112, 114 Devenny, D. A., 210 Devine, M., 169 De Von Figueroa-Moseley, C.,
108, 110, 111 Devore, S., 63, 64 Dexter, D. D., 165, 189 Diana v. State Board of
Education, 112 Díaz-Rico, L. T., 108 Dibiase, W., 55 Didden, R., 277 Dieker, L., 86 Dietz, S., 165 DiGennaro Reed, F. D., 278 Dikel, W., 179 Dillon, D., 211 Dillon, H., 323
Dilsaver, S. C., 154 Dissanayake, C., 126 Ditchman, N., 169 Division for Early Childhood,
Council for Exceptional Chil- dren and the National Asso- ciation for the Education of Young Children, 63
Doabler, C. T., 165 Dobbins, M., 165 Dobbinson, S., 269 Dodds, L., 366 Dodge, D. M., 251 Doerfler, L. A, 184 Dolson, J., 3, 4 Dombrowski, S. C., 162 Domitrovich, C. E., 64 Donahoe, J. W., 18 Donahue, T. P., 161 Donovan, J., 273 Donovan, S. A., 191 Dooley, J., 366 Dorn, S., 50 Dorr, R. E., 342 Dotson, C. K., 170 Doubet, K. J., 416 Doubet, S., 134 Dowling, S., 211 Dowsett, C., 87 Doyle, E. A., 373 Draaisma, D., 264 Drew, C. J., 17, 32, 64, 81, 90,
91, 149, 210, 211, 212, 213, 227, 236, 298, 304
DSM-5, 252 Du, X., 162 Dua, T., 213 Duchnowski, A. J., 186 Dufault, R., 161 Duncan, A., 43 Dunlap, G., 127, 138, 141, 142,
194, 195, 280, 281 Dunn, C., 170 Dunn, L. M., 49–50 Dunn, M. W., 159, 163 Dunning, D. L., 173 Dunst, C. J., 124, 139, 141, 142 DuPaul, G. J., 154, 173, 391, 392 Duppong-Hurley, K., 187 Duran, I., 362 Dutt, A., 210 Dworzynski, K., 159 Dyches, T., 137 Dyches, T. T., 131, 132, 137,
143, 231, 232, 264, 270, 277, 281, 286
Dyck, N. J., 112, 114 Dykes, M. K., 341
Eagan, T. M., 154 Earl, G., 253, 254 Easterbrooks, S., 335 Eaves, L. C., 276 Eber, L., 189, 193, 198, 199, 200 Eberly, S., 136, 137, 138 Eckert, R. D., 410, 411 Eckstein, M., 417 Eddey, G. E., 144 Eddy, J. M., 186 Edelsky, C., 104 Edmonson, H., 142 Edwards, K. S., 284 Edwards, M., 126, 211 Efron, D., 391 Egeland, J., 154 Eggen, P., 55 Eivers, A. R., 188 Elias, M. J., 168 Elkins, I. J, 392
Elliott, J. G., 173 Emerson, E., 101, 104, 108 Emond, A., 271, 272, 275 Enders, C., 165 Enerson, D. L., 411, 419, 421,
422, 424 Ensor, R., 187 Epilepsy Foundation, 371, 372 Epley, P., 139 Epstein, J. L., 110 Epstein, J. N., 168, 389 Epstein, M. H., 184, 186, 187,
191, 192 Epstein, S. H., 129 Erevelles, N., 113 Erich, S., 131 Erin, J. N., 340 Erwin, J. O., 401, 403, 409 ESA, 303 Eschbach, K., 101 Esler, A., 269 Eslick, G. D., 275 Espelage, D., 5, 8, 9 Espelage, D. L., 184, 185 Esping, A., 402 Espy, K. A., 161 Essa, E., 195 Etscheidt, S., 190 Eva, A. L., 177, 179, 180, 186 Evans, G. W., 101, 104 Evans, M. K., 168, 169 Eveleigh, E. L., 166, 167 Ewing-Cobbs, L., 165
Fabiano, G. A., 392 Faciane, L., 211 Fahrner, R., 368 Falcomata, T., 210 Falcomata, T. S, 172 Falik, L. H., 124, 126 Fama, M. E., 240 Farber, M., 303 Farinella, K. A., 244, 246, 251 Farley, M., 276 Farmer, T. W., 169 Faroqi-Shah, Y., 238 Farrington, D. P., 187 Fasmer, O. B., 154 Faulkner, S. L., 98 Fawber, H. L., 363 Fawcett, H., 126, 129, 132, 138 Fedina, C., 184 Feeley, K. M., 241 Fei, X., 144 Feil, E. G., 189 Feinberg, E., 139 Feinger-Schaal, R., 127 Feldman, S., 101 Feldmiller, S., 283 Ferguson, M., 169 Ferguson, P. M., 125 Ferrand, C. T., 256, 257 Ferre, S., 335 Fettig, A., 278, 279 Fien, H., 165, 166 Fine, M. J., 128 Finn, D., 87 Firmender, J. M., 412, 416 Fish, M. C., 124 Fisher, P. J., 104, 105, 108 Fitzgerald, M., 173 Flaherty, E., 125 Fleisch, B., 198 Fleming, G., 143 Fletcher, J. M., 102, 150, 159,
165, 269 Flora, C. B., 97 Flores, M., 211 Flory, K., 389, 391
Flynn, T. W., 248 Fogarty, M. S., 183 Fogle, P. T., 234, 237, 240, 241,
248, 251 Fombonne, E., 273, 274 Fontenot, K., 100 Forber-Pratt, A., 144 Ford, A., 299 Ford, D. Y., 403, 423 Ford, W. B., 283 Forde, L., 358 Foreman, P., 73 Forness, S. R., 179, 186, 200 Fornieles-Deu, A., 239 Forno, D., 158 Forsman, M., 187 Fowler, M., 392 Fox, L., 127, 138, 141, 142, 143,
194, 195, 210, 213, 219, 220, 297, 304
Francis, D. J., 102, 104 Francis, G., 143 Frankel, E. B., 59 Frankenberger, W., 391 Frankland, H. C., 141, 142, 144 Frazier, T. W., 391 Fredrick, L., 158 Fredrick, L. D., 169 Freeborn, D., 137 Freed, D. R., 237, 238 Freed, J., 253, 254 Freedman, B. H., 126 Freeman, D. E., 96, 97 Freeman, Y. S., 96, 97 French, G. S., 144 Fried, R., 389 Friedman, R. M., 194 Friedman B., 142 Friend, A., 139, 157 Friend, M. P., 32, 51, 52, 69, 88,
112, 114, 130 Fritsch, K., 104 Frodl, T., 389, 391 Froehlich, T. E., 168, 389 Froemling, K. K., 236, 238 Frost, J., 127 Frost, L., 281 Frydenberg, M., 173, 391 Fu, S., 275 Fuchs, D., 50, 69, 163, 167, 171 Fuchs, L. S., 69, 162, 163, 165,
167, 171 Fujiki, M., 112, 243 Fung, D. S, 281 Funkhouser, M., 99 Furney, K. S., 80
Gabelko, N. H., 409, 424 Gable, R. A., 165, 172, 173, 186 Gabrieli, J., 161 Gabrielsen, T. P., 276 Gaffney, J. S., 392 Gaffney, M., 156 Gagné, F., 402 Gagnon, E., 284 Gaile, J., 253, 254 Gajria, M., 152 Gal, E., 283 Galaburda, Albert, 156 Gall, J. P., 152 Gall, M. D, 152 Gallagher, G., 140, 143, 177 Gallagher, J. J., 403 Gallagher, P. A., 124, 138, 139 Galloway, J. C., 173 Galway, T. M., 163 Gama, R., 169 Gans, D., 277 Ganz, J. B., 163, 280
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AU T H O R I N D E X 487
Garcia, G., 105 Garcia-Vázquez, E., 98 Gardenas-Hagan, E., 104 Gardner, H., 401, 402 Gardner, J. E., 141 Gardner, J. M., 124, 137, 138 Gardner, R., 114 Gardner, T. J., 157 Gargiulo, R., 70 Gargiulo, R. M., 216 Garland, A. F., 257 Garner, R. E., 126, 131,
135, 139 Gartin, B. C., 73 Gartner, A., 50 Garvan, C., 392 Garza, A. A., 97 Gathercole, S. E., 173 Gaugler, T., 275 Gaumer Erickson, A., 302 Gavidia- Payne, S., 131, 132 Gay, G., 109 Gear, S. B., 165 Geary, D. C, 159 Geary, D. C., 169 Gebel, E., 375 Geenen, S., 51 Geffken, G. R., 391 Geisthardt, C., 141 Gelfand, D. M., 149 Gemici, S., 168 Geneau, R., 330 Geng, G., 392 Georgsdottir, A., 411 Gerber, P. J., 154 Gerry, M., 8 Gertz, G., 8 Geschwind, D. H., 272 Gettinger, M., 167 Getzel, E. E., 87 Ghaziuddin, M., 286, 287 Giangreco, M., 297 Giarelli, E., 271, 272 Gibb, G., 108 Gibb, G. S., 172, 173, 277 Gibbons, M. M., 423 Gilabert, R., 156 Gilbert, J. K., 163 Gilbert, S. G., 161 Gilbertson, D., 190, 335 Gil-Kashiwabara, E., 51 Gill, M., 173 Gillberg, C., 276 Gillberg, I. C., 276 Gilley, C., 168 Gillis, J. M., 278 Gimbert, B. G., 114 Gingras, H., 327 Ginsberg, C., 142 Gischlar, K. L., 162, 165 Giuliani, G. A., 152, 381 Glaeser, B. C., 87 Glascoe, F. P., 172 Glass, K., 389, 391 Glass, M., 186 Glidden, L. M., 125 Glimpse, W., 99 Gnagy, E. M., 392 Goh, T. J., 281 Goin-Kochel, R. P., 284 Goins, D., 299 Gold, S., 59 Goldberg, A. P., 275 Golding, J., 271, 272, 275 Goldstein, A., 156 Goldstein, R., 125 Goldstein, S., 154 Gollnick, D., 51, 98, 101, 107,
115, 301 Gómez, V., 139
González, N., 96, 108, 111 Gonzalez, V., 173 Gonzalez-Martinez, J. C., 144 Goo, M., 210 Goode, T., 302 Goodwyn, F. D., 280 Gordon, K. E., 366 Gordon, M., 171 Gorman, J. C., 144 Gormley, M. J., 154, 173 Gorodzinsky, A. Y., 356 Gottfredson, D. C., 198 Gottfried, A. E., 411 Gottfried, A. W., 411 Gotto, G. S., 139, 142 Gourin, C., 257 Gower, J., 165 Graczyk, P. A., 184 Graff, J. C., 137, 298 Graff, W. D., 173 Gragoudas, S., 87, 302 Graham, G., 423 Graham, H. K., 61 Graham, S., 157 Grahame, V., 281 Grant, A. E., 143 Grant, C. A., 97, 98, 108, 115 Gray, C. A., 255 Gray, D. E., 126, 128 Graziano, P. A., 391 Greenbank, A., 169 Greenberg, J. S., 124, 131 Greenberg, M. T., 64 Greene, B. A., 141 Gregg, N., 168, 169 Gregory, R. J., 112, 113, 115 Grenier, M., 52 Gresham, F. M., 187, 188,
189, 199 Grether, S., 240 Grey, M., 373 Grice, G. L., 236, 238 Grieco, E. M., 99 Grieve, A., 269 Griffin, H. C., 327 Griffin, L. W., 327 Griffith, A. K., 186 Griffith, G. M., 126 Grigal, M., 155, 170 Grigorenko, E. L., 398, 400,
402, 403, 408, 422 Grinstein-Weiss, M., 126 Grissom, M. O., 136 Grizenko, N., 158 Gronlund, N. E., 163 Gropman, A. L., 161 Gross, J. M. S, 143 Gross, M. U. M., 416 Gruner, A., 201 Grynszpan, O., 283 Gubbins, E. J., 410 Guerin, D. W., 411 Guerra, N. G., 193 Guilford, J. P., 399, 400, 401 Guillamón-Valenzuela, M., 239 Guralnick, M. J., 55, 64 Guzman, M. T., 51
Haager, D., 72, 73 Hackenberg, T. D., 168 Hafner-Eaton, C., 276 Hagaman, J. L., 186 Hagan-Burke, S., 183 Hagner, D., 82 Hahn, J. E., 144 Haigh, C., 135 Hain, L. A., 391 Hains, A. H., 64 Hainsworth, K. R., 356 Hale, J. B., 391
Hall, C. M., 169 Hall, L., 275 Hallemans, A., 327 Hallerod, B., 101, 104 Halperin, J. M., 391 Haltigan, J. D., 187 Hamblet, E. C., 89 Hammeken, P. A., 73 Hammond, M. A., 55, 64 Hammond, P., 173 Hampton, A., 235, 251 Hampton, D., 164 Handal, B., 165 Handbook on Transition from
Early Childhood Special Education Programs, 64
Hankin, B. L., 389 Hanley-Maxwell, C., 141 Hanley- Maxwell, C., 63 Hansen, D. L., 89 Hansen, S. D., 184 Hansen, S. N., 274 Hapner, E. R., 257 Happé, F., 272 Harchik, A., 89 Hardman, M., 5, 8, 43, 58, 61,
62, 68, 299, 301 Hardman, M. L., 17, 32, 43, 51,
53, 55, 60, 64, 68, 81, 87, 90, 91, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 226, 227, 236, 298, 304, 305
Hardman, S., 188 Haring, K., 32 Haring, N., 294 Harlaar, N., 161 Harland, P., 137 Harper, A., 132 Harper, J., 132, 186 Harrington, J. W., 284 Harrington, M. M., 116 Harrington, R. B, 284 Harris, B., 424 Harris, K. R., 157 Harris, M. L., 156 Harrison, A. G., 161, 171 Harrison, E., 283 Harrison, J. R., 160 Harry, B., 105, 113, 186 Hart, B., 104 Hart, D., 155, 170 Hart, J. E., 186 Hartmann, E., 243 Hartung, C. M., 187 Harty, S. C., 391 Harvey, A., 61 Harwood, H. R., 168, 171 Hasazi, S. B., 80 Hasselhorn, M., 150, 152, 154,
160 Hassiotis, A., 155 Hastings, R. P., 125, 126, 135,
137 Hastings R. P., 134 Hatton, C., 101, 104, 108 Hauser-Cram, P., 126, 128,
129, 133 Havighurst, R. J., 403 Hawken, L. S., 190, 218 Hawking, S., 241, 242 Haworth, C. M., 161 Hay, I., 84 Hayes, M. T., 142 Hayiou- Thomas, M. E., 161 Hays, P. A., 113 Hazle, L. A., 376, 377 Heath, M. A., 270 Heath, N., 169 Hebbrecht, L., 135 Hebert, T. P., 422
Hecht, M. I., 98 Heck, J. E., 274 Hedin, L. R., 392 Hehir, T., 43 Heilbrun, A. B., 187 Heiman, T., 142, 143 Heine, C., 324 Heller, K. W., 369 Hellerman, J., 116 Henault, I., 276 Henderson, J. E., 172 Hendrick, J., 108, 115 Hendrickson, J. M., 188 Herb, A., 332 Herman, K. C., 189 Hernandez, M., 142 Herr, C. M., 38, 43, 44 Herro, D., 165 Hertberg, H. L., 416 Hester, P. P., 188 Heth, C. D., 18 Heung, K., 281 Hewitt, A., 296 Heyman, M., 226 Higgens, E. S., 392 Hill, C., 125 Hill, D., 211 Hill, K., 126 Hill, N., 356, 357 Hill, S., 210, 211, 212,
219, 295 Hillegas, T., 25–26 Hills, J., 172 Hilton, K. A., 173 Hilt-Panahon, A., 165 Hintermair, M., 323 Hitchcock, C., 72 Hittie, M. M., 52, 68, 69, 73 Ho, H. H., 276 Hoard, M. K, 159 Hockett, J. A., 412, 416 Hoebing, L., 362 Hoeft, F., 164 Hoekstra, P. J., 173 Hoffman, C. C, 201 Hogansen, J. M., 51 Holbrook, M. C., 342, 343 Holland, T., 59 Hollenbeck, A. F., 166 Hollingshead, A., 55 Hollins, E. R., 51 Hollo, A., 184 Holmes, J., 173 Holvoet, J. F., 298 Holzberg, C., 50 Honey, E., 281 Hong, J., 131 Hoogeveen, L., 416 Hooper, S. R., 184 Hoover, J. J., 151, 152 Hopper, G., 153, 173 Hord, C., 165 Horner, R. H., 61, 70, 189, 190,
280, 281, 299 Horowitz, F. D., 398, 401, 406,
411, 424 Hosp, J. L., 73 Hosp, M. K., 73 Hossain, W. A., 302 Houchins, D., 158 Houchins, D. E., 169 Hough, L., 272, 277, 284 Hough, R., 257 Houston, S. M., 161 Howell, K. W., 73 Hoyer-Kuhn, H. K., 362 Hu, X., 144 Hua, Y., 210 Huang, K. Y., 195 Huang, L., 184, 187
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AU T H O R I N D E X488
Huang, Y., 126 Huber, J. J., 127, 128 Hudson, R. F., 142 Huefner, D. S., 38, 43, 44, 67 Huff, R. M., 104 Hughes, C., 143, 144, 186,
187, 306 Hughes, C. A., 165, 166, 189 Hughes, E. M., 391 Hughes, J., 407 Hughes, K. C., 165 Hughes, L. A, 169 Hughes, M. T., 167 Hulme, C., 245, 246, 247 Hulstijn, W., 157, 160 Hume, K. A., 278, 279 Humphrey, N., 52 Humphreys, K. L., 391 Hundal, Ø., 154 Hundert, J., 283 Hunt, J. M., 56 Hunt, P. H., 57 Hunter, S. C., 266 Hurst, M., 332 Hyde, K., 198
Iacono, W. G., 186, 187, 392 Iarusso, K., 52 Iezzoni, L. I., 144 Ilyas, F., 157 Imbeau, M., 73 Inkelas, M., 126 Insel, T., 181 Ip, S. C., 332 Irving, B., 187 Isaacs, B. J., 126 Isaacson, W., 408 Iseman, J. S., 159 Israel, A. C., 184, 187, 188, 199 Itälinna, M., 134
Jackson, B., 128, 129 Jackson, C., 166, 323 Jackson, R., 72 Jacobs, L., 187 Jaervelin, M. R., 126 Jahns, V., 362 Jahoda, A., 284 James, William, 17 Janse, E., 156 Janusis, G. M., 392 Jarrett, D., 169 Jarvin, L., 398, 400, 402, 403,
408, 422 Jarvis, J. M., 409 Javitz, H., 32 Jenkins, J., 162, 167 Jenkins, J. M., 126 Jenner, W., 274 Jeter, L. V., 198 Jimenez, A. M., 101 Jimenez, B., 55 Jimenez, B. A., 211 Jitendra, A. K., 152, 158 Job, J. M., 169 Johansen, S., 154 Johns, M. M., 257 Johnsen, S. K., 409, 413 Johnson, A. L., 272 Johnson, C., 135, 177, 179,
180, 186 Johnson, D., 80 Johnson, E. S., 153, 173 Johnson, G. O., 27 Johnson, J., 391 Johnson, J. H., Jr., 99 Johnson, K. A., 173 Johnson, L., 177, 179, 180, 186 Johnson, R. A., 276
Johnson, R. T., 363 Johnson, S. M., 186 Johnson, T., 169, 170 Johnson, W., 186, 187 Johnston, S., 304 Johnston, S. S., 218, 241 Jolivette, K., 169 Jones, C. R. G., 272 Jones, E. A., 241 Jones, M., 251 Jones, N., 391 Jones, S. C., 124, 125 Jones, S. E. L., 189 Jones, T. L., 143 Joober, R., 158 Jordan, A. M., 27 Jordan, J., 164 Joseph, L. M., 89, 166, 167 Joshi, G., 389 Joy, J. E., 363 Judge, S., 156 Justen, J., 294 Justice, L. M., 63
Kachgal, M., 87 Kaderavek, J. N., 63, 235 Kagohara, D., 220 Kahn, A. B., 358 Kahn, R. S., 389 Kaiser, A. P., 211 Kaland, M., 323, 324 Kalb, L., 268 Kalb, L. G., 126 Kalberg, J. R., 189, 192, 198 Kaldenberg, E., 210 Kalikow, K. T., 173, 391 Kalloo, V., 165 Kamboukos, D., 195 Kamhia, A. G., 160 Kamps, D., 283 Kan, E., 161 Kanaya, T., 267, 268 Kandel, W. A., 102, 105 Kane, M., 279 Kanenberg, H., 131 Kanga, A., 113 Kannass, K. N., 411 Kanne, S. M., 269 Kanner, L., 264, 273, 275 Kao, B. T., 142 Karch, K. M., 392 Karen, T. J., 73 Karnes, F. A., 403 Kasarda, J. D., 99 Kasari, C., 277 Katims, D. S., 211 Katon, W., 257 Katsiyannis, A., 179, 184,
194, 391 Katusic, S. K., 389 Katzir, T., 161 Katz-Leavey, J., 201 Kauchak, D., 55 Kauffman, J. M., 114, 183,
186, 198 Kaufman, A. S., 160 Kavale, K. A., 151, 152, 179 Kazak, A. E., 126 Kebir, O., 158 Keeley, P., 162 Keen, D., 139, 141, 142 Keenan, S., 193, 198 Kellems, R. O., 281 Keller-Bell, Y., 167 Kellett, U., 126 Kelley, E., 275 Kelley, S. J., 124, 138 Kelly, N., 165 Keltner, B., 108, 110, 111
Kendall, S., 167 Kendziora, K. T., 195, 201 Kennedy, M., 165 Kennedy, W., 87 Kennett, D. J., 171 Kent, K. M., 392 Kenworthy, L., 269, 272, 275 Kern, L., 187, 188, 391, 392 Kerns, K. A., 127 Kessler Foundation and the
National Organization on Disability, 13, 14, 80
Ketterlin-Geller, L. R., 72 Keyes, M, 392 Keys, C. B., 169 Kidder, J. E., 218 KidSource, 328 Kieckhefer, G. M., 369 Kientz, M., 81 Kiger, D., 165 Killu, K., 179 Kim, J., 186 Kim, P., 101, 104 Kim, S. E., 126 Kim, T. E., 166, 193 Kimbrel, N. A., 392 King, B. H., 283 King, K. A., 423 King, L. B., 274 King, M. A., 201 King-Sears, M. E., 167 Kingston, S., 195 Kirby, R. S., 271, 272 Kirkendall, D., 123 Kirkendall, Don, 123 Kirley, A., 173 Kishiyama, M. M., 101 Kittler, P., 210 Kiuhara, S., 81 Klassen, A. F., 126, 131,
135, 139 Klassen, R. M., 169 Klebe, K. J., 392 Klei, L., 275 Klein, E., 55 Klein, P. D., 157 Kleinert, H., 89 Klin, A., 276, 277 Kline, M. V., 104 Klinger, J., 186 Klinger, J. K., 72, 73 Klingner, J., 105, 113 Klinto, K., 244 Knight, R. T., 101 Knight, S., 399 Knitzer, J., 198 Knokey, A., 80, 81, 89 Knoster, T. P., 142 Knott, F., 284 Knouse, L. E., 392 Knowles, T., 160 Knox, M., 138 Koegel, L. K., 270, 272, 284 Koegel, R. L., 270, 272,
280, 284 Koenig, A. J., 342, 343 Koenig, D., 166 Koenig, K., 276, 277 Kogan, M. D., 276 Kohen, D. E., 126, 131, 135, 139 Kohnen, S., 157–158 Kokkonen, J., 126 Kolb, S. M., 141 Konjoian, P., 140, 143, 177 Konopasek, D., 200 Konopasek, D. E., 200 Konrad, M., 89 Koot, H. M., 126 Korzilius, H., 277 Kosowski, T. R., 257
Kostewicz, D. E., 186 Kosty, D. B., 166 Kotering, L., 72 Kou, Y., 275 Kouroupetroglou, G., 326 Kovas, Y., 161 Kowalski, R. M., 184 Kozleski, E. B., 52, 98, 105,
106, 112, 113, 115, 423 Kraft, D. P., 392 Krashen, S. D., 114 Krauss, M. W., 126 Krawec, J. L., 156, 158 Kresak, K. E., 124, 138 Kreutzer, J. S., 380 Krinsky-McHale, S. J., 210 Kroger, X., 87 Kubina, R. M., 157, 186 Kucharczyk, S., 278, 279 Kulik, J., 416 Kummer, A. W., 255, 256, 257 Kurtz, A., 82 Kurtz, M., 252, 254, 255 Kurzweil Technologies,
345, 348 Kushki, A., 157 Kutash, K., 186 Kyle, T., 368, 372 Kyzar, K., 139
Lach, L. M., 126, 131, 135, 139 Ladew, P., 89 Lai, M-C., 274 Lakin, C., 227 LaLiberte, T., 126 Lall, A. S., 391 Lam, C. M., 281 Laman, E., 131, 135, 136,
137, 144 Lamb, M. E., 134 Lamonte, M., 50 Lancioni, G., 220 Landa, R., 235, 239 Landrum, T. J., 186 Lane, K. L., 87, 168, 178, 186,
189, 190, 192, 198 Langberg, J. M., 168 Langkamp, D. L., 172 Lanou, A., 272, 277, 284 Lanphear, B. P., 389 Lansdowne, K., 423 Laracy, S. D., 154, 173 Larochette, A., 161 Larry P. v. Riles, 112 Larson, Elizabeth A., 133 Larsson, D., 101, 104 Larsson, H., 187 Lattimore, J., 201 Lau v. Nichols, 112 Laverdure, P. A., 359 Law, J., 184, 237, 253, 254 Law, P., 284 Lawrence, K., 391 Layton, C. A., 88 Lazzaretti, C. C., 360 Leader-Janssen, E., 53 Leafstedt, J. M., 50 Lebel, C., 161 Leblanc, B., 161 Leblanc, D., 156 LeBlanc, L. A., 281 Lecavalier, L., 274 Le Couteur, A., 281 Lederberg, A., 335 Lee, A. B., 275 Lee, A. L., 128, 129 Lee, I. H., 168, 169 Lee, L., 271, 272 Lee, L. C., 284
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AU T H O R I N D E X 489
Lee, M., 124, 137, 138 Lee, S., 142 Lee, S. S., 391 Lee, S. Y., 405, 410, 418 Lee, Y. H., 183 Legoff, D. B., 284 Lehr, F., 166 Leichman, E., 165 Leigh, S. A., 327 Leininger, M., 264, 270 Leinonen, E., 134 Lembke, E. S., 164 LeMire, S., 165 Lenhart, A., 166 Lenz, K. B., 158 Leppert, M. L., 58 Leppien, J. H., 416 Leung, P., 131 Leverett, L., 168 Levin, B., 105 Levine, E. S., 392 Levine, S. P., 125, 135 Levinson, E. M., 141 Levitt, J. L., 181 Levy, S., 235, 236, 238, 245 Levy, S. E., 271, 272 Lewallen, S., 330 Lewandowski, L., 171 Lewis, A., 392 Lewis, T., 171 Lewis, T. J., 189, 195 Lewis-Palmer, T., 195 Library of Congress, 348 Lichtenstein, P., 187 Lichtenstein, S., 50 Lieberman-Betz, R. G, 164 Light, J., 359 Lightfoot, E., 126 Lignugaris/Kraft, B., 91 Lignugaris-Kraft, B., 184 Lin, L., 131, 133 Linan-Thompson, S., 104 Lindstrom, J. H., 153, 164, 173 Lipkin, P. H., 58 Lipsky, D. K., 50 Little, T. D., 87, 126, 134 Liu, R., 391 Liu, W. M., 419 Liu, Z., 257 Liverman, C. T., 363 Livingston, R., 113, 115 Lobato, D. J., 142 Lobo, M. A., 173 Lochman, J. E., 193–194, 195 Lock, R. H., 88 Lockton, E., 253, 254 Logan, J. R., 63 Lohmander, A., 244, 256–257 Lombardo, M. V., 274 London, T. H., 193, 198,
199, 200 Long-Bellil. L. M., 144 Loomis, J. W., 161 Lopes, J., 195 Lopez, K., 274 Lopez, M. J., 166 Lopez Fernandez, J. M., 165 Lopez-Romero, L., 186 Lord, C., 235, 239, 269 Lotrecchiano, G., 326, 330 Lott, V., 98 Louie, B. B., 284 Lovett, B. J., 171 Lovett, D. L., 141 Lovett, M. W., 154 Lowenstein, A. E., 235 Lowman, D. K., 143 Lozano, P., 257 Lubbard, T., 411 Lucangeli, D., 158
Lucchese, F., 104 Luckner, J. L., 138, 142, 162 Lucyshyn, J. M., 142 Luengo, M. A., 186 Lukiw, W. J., 161 Lund, A., 154 Lund, E. M., 163, 280 Lund, J. L., 73 Lund, S. K., 321 Lunsford, L. B., 186 Lupkowski-Shoplik, A. E., 416 Lussier, C., 158, 165, 169 Lynes, M. J., 218 Lyon. G. R., 150
Maag, J. W., 179, 184, 194, 199 MacArthur, C., 330 Macartney, S., 100 Macaruso, P., 166 MacDonald E. E., 134 MacFarlane, J. R., 267, 268 MacFarlane, S. B., 104 Machek, G. R., 159 MacInnes, M. D., 126 Mackie, L., 184 MacKinnon, D. W., 404 Macluckie, M., 164 MacSween, J., 366 Madhavan, S., 126 Maehler, C., 152, 158, 159, 163 Maes, B., 139 Magaña, S., 274 Magee, C. A., 124, 125 Maglione, M., 277 Maheady, L., 190 Mahoney, E. B., 159 Mainzer, L., 167 Majnemer, A., 172 Makia, B., 271, 272 Malloy, J., 50 Malmgren, K. W., 186 Malone, S., 392 Malouk, T. E., 321 Mammarella, I. C., 158 Manasco, M. H., 238 Manci, D. B., 165 Mandell, D. S., 274, 276 Mandleco, B., 137 Mandleco, B. L, 137 Mandy, W., 274 Maner, J. K., 152 Mangina, C. A., 154, 160 Manis, F. R., 161 Manley, K., 89 Mannan, H., 126, 128, 134 Manning, S., 422, 423 Mao, A. R., 392 Mara, M., 129 Marcinko, H., 268 Marcoulides, G. A., 144 Marder, C., 80, 81, 89 Margolis, H. S., 84 Marinez, R. S., 424 Markowitz, J., 277 Marks, A., 187 Marks, S. U., 137 Marle, P. D., 392 Marquis, J., 126, 128 Marquis, J. G., 135 Marschark, M., 324 Marsden, A. J. S., 272 Marshall, Abbey, 263 Marshall, E. S., 137 Martelon, M., 389 Martin, A., 272, 389 Martin, D., 97, 108 Martin, J., 50 Martin, J. E., 141, 169 Martin, N., 18, 238
Martin, R. B., 165 Marulis, L. M., 105 Marvin, C., 142 Mascarenhas, M. N., 213 Mason, D. M., 392 Mason, L. H., 156, 157, 392 Mason, R., 283 Massae, P., 330 Mastekaasa, A., 186 Mastropieri, M. A., 52, 55, 74,
156, 157, 166 Mathers, C. D., 213 Mathes, P. G., 104, 158 Mathy, P., 268 Matson, A., 137 Matsushita, M. M., 161 Matthews, D. J., 423 Matthews, M. S., 423, 424 Mattison, R. E., 184 Matuszny, R. M., 145 Maughan, B., 187 Maulik, P. K., 213 Maxam, S., 172 Maxwell, L. A., 105 May, J., 82 May, M. O., 151 Mayer, M., 193–194 Mayer, R. E., 166 Mayo Clinic, 363, 372, 375 Mayor, J., 235 Mazer, B., 172 Mazurek, M. O., 269 Mazzotti, V. L., 87 McAdam, C., 268 McAnally, P. L., 324 McBean, K., 253, 254 McCall, S., 326 McCann, M., 403 McCardle, P., 160, 161 McCarthy, A., 126, 131, 134 McCartney, E., 237 McCauley, E., 257 McClannon, T. W., 72 McConachie, H., 281 McConaughy, S. H., 392 McConkey, R., 165 McCoy, S. W., 358 McCullough, J., 198 McDonald, C., 335 McDonald, K. E., 169 McDonnell, A. P., 58, 61, 62,
218, 299, 301 McDonnell, J., 5, 8, 57, 58, 60,
61, 62, 68, 81, 84, 87, 88, 91, 299, 301, 306
McDonnell, J. J., 218 McDonnell, J. M., 51, 53, 55, 89 McDonough, J. T., 143 McDonough, P., 101 McFarlane, S. C., 256 McGillivray, J. A., 154 McGowan, R. S., 335 McGue, M., 186, 187, 392 McGuire, J., 60, 87, 91 McHatton, P. A., 144, 145 McHugh, M., 103, 135, 136, 137 McHugh, M. B., 283 McHugh, M. W., 418 McIntire, J. C., 201 McIntyre, L. L., 281 McKee, L., 141 McKeen, S., 324 McKellar, N. A., 165 McKenna, J. W., 164, 168 McKevitt, B. C., 392 McKie, F., 124 McKinnon, D. H., 243, 256 McKnight, M., 164 McLaughlin, E., 281 McLaughlin, M., 238, 239
McLaughlin, T. M., 165 McLeod, S., 243, 256 McLeskey, J., 165, 172, 391 McLinden, M., 326 McLornian, P., 169 McManus, M. D., 172 McManus, S., 87 McMaster, K. L., 162 McMillan, J. H., 113 McNamara, J. K., 168 McNaughton, D., 359 McNicholas, F., 173 McPheeters, M. L., 278 McStay, R., 126 Meadan, H., 134 Meadows, S., 401 Mehta, P. D., 102 Meija, B., 201 Meinzen-Derr, J., 240 Meinzen- Derr, J. J., 323 Meire, F., 327 Mellard, D., 164 Mellard, D. F., 153, 173 Menon, V., 164 Menzies, H. M., 168, 186, 189,
192, 198 Merit, 167 Merrell, K. W., 115, 179 Mersino, Deborah, 417 Metcalf, D., 70 Metsala, J. L., 163 Metz, D. E., 244, 246, 251 Meyer, A., 72 Meyer, D., 135, 136 Meyer, D. J., 134 Meyer, L. H., 294 Meyer, P. J., 102, 105 Meyers, B., 128 Michalak, N., 172 Middleton, R., 113 Migerode, F., 139 Migliore, A., 155, 170 Mikita, C., 320 Miller, A. R., 126, 131, 135, 139 Miller, B., 160, 161 Miller, C. A., 239 Miller, C. J., 391 Miller, D. N., 153 Miller, E., 335 Miller, G., 173 Miller, H., 18 Miller, J., 276 Miller, K. B., 163 Miller, L., 162 Miller, L. J., 271 Miller, M. J., 189 Miller, R., 392 Miller, S. P., 165 Miller, T., 283 Minihan, P. M., 144 Minne, E. P., 158, 160 Minnes, P., 125, 133, 135 Minney, J. A., 194, 195 Mirenda, P., 241 Mishna, F., 185 Misra, S., 277 Mitchell, D., 135 Mitchell, F. L., 161 Mitchell, J. T., 392 Moats, L. C., 114, 158 Mock, D. R., 186 Moeller, K., 158 Mohan, P., 165 Mohiuddin, S., 286, 287 Molina, B. S. G., 392 Moll, L. C., 96, 108, 111 Monahan, K. C., 187 Monger, R., 101 Moni, K. B., 392 Montague, M., 156, 165
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AU T H O R I N D E X490
Montgomery, D., 422 Montgomery, J. K., 211, 212,
239, 297 Mooij, T., 411 Moon, S. M., 401, 403 Mooney, J., 5 Mooney, P., 189, 194 Moore, B. J., 211, 212, 239, 297 Moore, D. R., 160, 329 Moore, Shasta Kearns, 127 Moores, D. F., 323 Moorman, A., 167 Moran, A. S., 158, 165, 169 Moran, S., 410 Morawska, A., 404 Moreno, G., 192 Morgan, B., 210 Morgan, R. L., 89 Morillo-Campbell, M., 108,
110, 111 Morley, J., 391 Morningstar, M. E., 281 Morris, D., 156 Morris, M. A., 158, 169 Morris, M. E., 61 Morris, R. D., 150 Morrow, E. M., 272 Morton, H., 274 Moses, H., 98 Moss, J., 126 Moule, J., 97, 112 Moyson, T., 125 Mueller, J., 115 Mueller, T. G., 190 Mulder, M., 43, 68 Muller, E., 81 Muller. C., 170 Murawski, W. W., 52 Murdick, N. L., 73 Murphy, M. M., 126 Murray, B. A., 158 Murray, J., 187 Muscott, H. S., 139 Muscular Dystrophy Associa-
tion, 366 Mushtaq, A., 194, 195
Nagel, S. K., 173 Nagle, K., 80, 81, 89 Nagle, K. M., 324 Naglieri, J. A., 159 Narkon, D. E., 165 Narr, R. F., 324 Nassab, C. A., 401 Nation, M., 187 National Association for Gifted
Children, 401 National Association for
the Education of Young Children, 61, 62
National Association of School Psychologists, 51
National Autism Center, 276, 280, 281, 283
National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems, 96, 97
National Center for Education Statistics, 155, 186
National Center for HIV/ AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, 367
National Center for Learning Disabilities, 154, 156, 169, 170, 171
National Center on Response to Intervention, 153
National Coalition of Auditory Processing Disorders, 160
National Down Syndrome Society, 214
National Education Associa- tion, 98, 105, 110
National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities, 38
National Institute of Mental Health, 184, 389, 391, 392
National Institute of Neuro- logical Disorders and Stroke, 365, 371, 372, 373, 379
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 249, 325, 329, 331, 337
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 152, 160, 163, 173
National Mental Health Infor- mation Center, 193
National Organization on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, 215
National Reading Panel, 166 National Research Council,
276, 277 National Resource Center on
ADHD, 393 National Spinal Cord Injury
Statistical Center, 363 National Technical Institute for
the Deaf, 339 Neal, P., 58 Neal, Sydney, 8 Neece, C. L., 126, 135 Needelman, H., 391 Nehring, W. M., 361 Neiderhiser, J. M., 187 Neisworth, J., 299 Nelson, J. M., 159, 168, 171 Nelson, J. R., 178, 184, 186, 187 Nelson, L. L., 141, 142 Nelson-Gray, R. O., 392 Nelson-Walker, N. J., 166 Neubert, D. A., 201 Neuman, S. B., 105 Neville, B., 55, 64 Newacheck, P. W., 126 Newcomer, L., 195 Newcorn, J. H., 391 Newman, L., 32, 80, 81, 89 Newman, L. A., 324 Newschaffer, C. J., 284 Newton, D. A., 91 New York State Department
of Health, 333 Nguyen, H. T., 173 Nicholas, J. S., 274 Nickels, L., 157–158 Nickerson, A. B., 191 Nicpon, M. F., 419 Niederhauser, C., 142 Nielsen, D. M., 271 Nielsen, H. S., 173 Nielson, K. M., 137 Nierengarten, G., 90 Nieweg, E. H., 391 Nikolas, M. A., 391 Nino, M., 167 Nippold, M. A., 102 Nirel, R., 158 Nisbet, J., 50 Nissenbaum, M. S., 128 Nittrouer, C., 144 Nittrouer, S., 335 Nix, R. L., 64 Nochajski, S. M., 186 NOD/Harris, L., 13 Noell, G., 190 Nolet, V., 73
Noonan, P., 302 Norbury, C. F., 252, 253, 254 Nordby, R., 339 North, J., 419 Northey, W. F., Jr., 281 Northwest Kinematics, 167 Norton, E. S., 161 Noseworthy, J., 273, 274 Nowell, K. P., 284 Nowicki, E. A., 172 Nugent, L., 159 Nungesser, N. R., 184 Nyberg, J., 256–257
Obiakor, F. E., 82 O’Brian, S., 251 O’Brien, B. A., 154 Obrzut, J. E., 159 O’Connor, R. E., 164, 165, 166 Odom, S. L., 278, 279 O’Donnell, P. S., 153 Oedegaard, K. J., 154 Ohan, J., 185 O’Hara, S., 115 O’Hare, A., 237 Ok, M. W., 72 O’Kearny, R., 169 Oliver, B. R., 187 Oliver, C., 295 Olsen, A., 165 Olsen, J. A., 187 Olsen, K., 300 Olson, D., 124, 125 Olson, R. K., 157, 159 Olson, S. L., 195 Olszewski-Kubilius, P., 401,
405, 410, 418 O’Neil, S., 102, 105 O’Neill, R. E., 190 O’Nell, S., 296 Ong-Dean, C., 140 Onslow, M., 251 Ooi, Y. P., 281 Oppenheim, D., 127 O’Reilly, M. F., 220 Orlovski, S., 268 Ornstein, E., 98 Orosco, M. J., 164, 165, 169 Orsmond, G. I., 126, 131,
133, 135 Ortibus, E., 327 Ortiz, A., 98, 102, 105, 106,
112, 113, 115 Ortiz, S. O., 144 Ortman, J. M., 99 Osborn, J., 166 Osher, D., 98, 105, 106, 112,
113, 115, 201 Oswald, D., 114 Ota, M., 268 Ovadia, R., 321 Ovando, C. J., 97, 108, 113, 114 Overmann, K. A., 392 Overvelde, A., 157, 160 Owen, D. T., 329 Owens, J. S., 392 Owens, R. E., Jr., 233, 234,
235, 236, 244, 246, 251 Ozonoff, S., 281
Pacchiano, D., 201 Packman, A., 251 Pahl, S., 391 Palisano, R. J., 358 Palmer, S., 87 Panchik, A., 252, 254, 255 Papadopoulos, K., 326 Parent-Johnson, W., 143 Parentlink, 128
Parent Project Muscular Dystrophy, 366
Parette, H. P., 134 Parish, S. L., 10, 126 Park, H. J., 143 Park, J., 126, 128 Parkes, J., 356, 357 Parner, E. T., 274 Partnership for 21st Century
Skills, 88 Pasco, G., 274 Pascoe, S., 73 Passolunghi, M. C., 159 Passow, A. H., 402 Pastore, M., 187 Pathy, P., 281 Paton, K., 173 Patrick, L., 161 Patrick, P. A., 284 Patton, J. R., 87, 183, 210, 211,
212, 219, 295 Paul, D., 240 Paul, R., 235, 239, 268 Payne-Christiansen, E. M., 84 Pearson, C., 360 Peck, C. A., 294 Pedersen, W., 186 Pelchar, T. K., 423 Pelham, W. E., Jr., 392 Pellecchia, M., 279 Pellegrino, L., 57, 218, 300 Pelton, S., 52 Pennington, B. F., 159 Peoplemovin, 101 Pepi, A. M., 160 Pepler, D. J., 185, 284 Peppé, S., 268 Perez, P., 98 Perez-Diaz, F., 283 Perkins, M. R., 269 Perlich, P., 99, 101 Perlman, S. P., 243, 244 Perner, D. E., 73 Perrin, J. M., 276 Perry, L. M., 101 Pester, P., 344 Peters, B., 278 Peterson, J. M., 52, 68, 69, 73 Peterson, P., 256–257 Peters-Scheffer, N., 277 Petkova, E., 195 Petocz, P., 165 Petrill, S. A., 159, 161 Petty, C., 389 Petty, J., 126, 295 Pfannenstiel, K., 172 Pfeiffer, W. S., 233, 237,
239, 240 Phillips, A., 190 Phillips, D. A., 64, 235 Phillips, J., 323 Phillipson, S. N., 403 Piaget, J., 56 Piamjariyakul, U., 137 Pickles, A., 272 Pierangelo, R., 152, 381 Pierce, C. D., 189, 194 Pierce, L., 64 Pierson, M. R., 87 Piet, J., 50 Pieters, S., 161 Piffer, D., 410 Piirto, J., 401 Pijl, S., 391 Pinkham, B. E., 135 Pinnegar, S., 95, 112, 115 Pipp-Siegel, S., 126 Pitterle, K., 252, 254, 255 Pixner, S., 158 Place, M., 173
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AU T H O R I N D E X 491
Plank, D. R., 186 Plante, E. M., 233, 242,
243, 246 Plante, W., 142 Platt, C., 137 Pleck, J. H., 134 Plomin, R., 161, 407 Plucker, J. A., 402, 424 Plunkett, K., 235 Plutarch, 231 Poirier, J. M., 188 Pollard-Durodola, S. D., 104 Polloway, E. A., 87 Poloni-Staudinger, L., 101, 105 Polsgrove, L., 184 Polychronis, S., 84 Ponce, H. R., 166 Poobrasert, O., 324 Poon, T., 321 Porayska-Pomsta, K., 284 Porter, J., 136, 137, 138, 152 Porter, P., 392 Portone, C., 257 Posey, W. M., 392 Poston, A. J., 142 Poston, D., 126, 128, 142 Poston, D. J., 126, 134, 144, 145 Poultney, C. S., 275 Powell, E., 272, 277, 284 Powell, N. P., 194, 195 Powell, S., 86 Powell, S. G., 173, 391 Powell, S. R., 158 Powers, K., 51 Powers, L., 51 Prater, M. A., 131, 143, 172,
173, 231, 232, 264, 270, 281, 286
President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education, 46
President’s Committee for People with Intellectual Disabilities, 213
Pretti-Frontczak, K., 299 Price, T. S., 407 Prichard, E., 84 Prinz, R. J., 143 Pritchard, R. H., 115 Prunty, D., 165 Przepiorka, A. M., 248 PT Software, 167 Pugach, M. C., 68, 171, 391 Purcell, J. H., 411, 416 Purcell, K., 166 Puura, K., 274
Quenemoen, R., 171, 300 Quigley, S. P., 324 Quinn, M. M., 188
Rabiner, D. L., 391 Rabren, K. S., 170 Radley, K. C., 283 Radziewicz, C., 235, 236 Ralabate, P., 114 Ramachandran, Priya, 365 Ramdoss, S., 220 Ramey, C. T., 108, 110, 111 Ramig, P. R., 251 Ramírez-Mallafré, A., 239 Ramos-Ford, V., 401, 402 Rankel, L., 321 Rao, K, 72 Rapin, I., 252 Raposa, K. A., 243, 244 Rapp, K. E., 424 Rappo, G., 160 Rashotte, C. A., 166–167
Raskind, W. H., 161 Ratcliffe, M. M., 369 Raver, S. A., 61, 138, 139, 140,
141, 143 Ravindran, N., 128 Reddy, L. A., 391, 392 Redmond, A. S., 172, 173 Reed, M. J., 171 Reed, V. A., 238, 246, 251 Reichle, J., 241 Reid, A., 97, 108 Reid, R., 186, 391, 392 Reider-Demer, M., 372 Reilly, S., 243, 256 Reinke, W. M., 189 Reis, S. M., 401, 404, 407, 409,
412, 416 Reiser, M. L., 180, 186 Reisinger, L., 273, 274 Reiss, J. G., 144 Renfro, P. D., 143 Renzulli, J. S., 401, 404, 407,
409, 410 Renzulli Learning, 418 Reschly, D. J., 104, 106 Rescorla, L. A, 191 Resenfelt, A., 195 Reuter, A. E. F., 392 Reuter, S. D., 392 Reynolds, C. R., 113, 115, 160 Rhodes, C. H., 139 Riad, S., 98 Ricci, S. S., 368, 372 Rice, C. E., 173, 271, 272 Richards, C., 50 Richardson, L. P., 257 Richardson, M. J., 142, 180,
186, 189 Richert, E. S., 408, 409 Richman, E. L., 126 Riddering, A. T., 331 Ridgway, E. B., 257 Rieger, A., 126 Riise, T., 154 Riley, J. L., 392 Riley, T. F., 162 Rimm, S., 411, 419 Rimm, S. B., 401, 404, 405,
406, 408, 409, 410, 422 Ringdahl, J., 210 Ringdahl, J. E., 168 Risdal, D., 131 Risley, T. R., 104 Ritchey, K. D., 166 Ritzman, M. J., 53 Rivers, K. O., 144 Roach, A. T., 72 Robb, M. P., 245 Roberts, C., 184 Roberts, E., 169 Roberts, G. J., 164, 168 Roberts, H. J., 391 Roberts, J. L., 419 Robertson, C. D., 392 Robertson, I. H., 173 Robey, K. L., 144 Robin, J., 61 Robinson, A., 409, 411, 419,
421, 422, 424 Robinson, N. B., 245 Robinson, T. R., 194 Rodman, A., 166 Rodriguez, D., 106, 108,
112, 114 Rodriguez, E. M., 52 Rodriguez, G. G., 161 Roeyers, H., 125, 135, 158, 161 Rogers, K. B., 410, 416 Rogers, R., 52 Rogers, S., 235, 239
Rogers, S. J., 281 Roisman, G. I., 187 Roivainen, E., 163 Roizen, N., 326, 330 Rojewski, J. W., 168, 169 Romano, S., 368 Romer, L., 144 Romero, E., 186 Romesburg, A. M., 355 Rommelse, N., 392 Roopnarine, J. L., 134 Roper, S., 137 Roper, S. O., 132, 137 Rorie, M., 198 Rose, C., 5, 8, 9 Rose, C. A., 184, 185 Rose, D. H., 72 Rose, D. S., 359 Rose, E., 81, 82 Rose, J., 193, 198, 199, 200 Rose, R. A., 126 Rose, S., 324 Rosenbaum, P. L., 126, 131,
135, 139 Rosenberg, M. S., 190 Rosenblum, Y., 161 Rosenhan, D. I., 9 Rosenkoetter, S. E., 64 Rosenzweig, C., 156 Rosier, E. M., 58 Roth, F., 240 Roth, M. E., 278 Rowe, D. A., 87 Rowe, S., 283 Rozien, N.J., 57, 218, 300 Rubenstein, K. B., 161 Ruddick, L., 295 Rueda, R., 106 Rues, J. P., 298 Ruigrok, A. N. V., 274 Rummel-Hudson, R., 131 Rupiper, M., 142 Ruppar, A., 278 Rush, D. D., 139 Russell, L. M., 143 Russell, S., 64 Russo, J. E., 257 Rutkowski, S., 89 Rutter, M., 187 Ryan, J. B., 186, 189, 194, 391 Rydell, A-M., 391 Ryndak, D. L., 306
Sabbah, H. Y., 180, 186 Sabourin, C., 156 Sacker, A., 101 Sacks, S. Z., 326 Sadeghin, T., 161 Sailor, W., 294 Salameh, E., 244 Salekin, R. T., 187 Saloviita, T., 134 Salvatore, K., 323, 324 Sambamoorthi, U., 126 Sameroff, A. J., 195 Sampango-Sprouse, C. A., 161 Sampers, J., 187 Sampson, M., 238 Sanders, M. R., 124, 404 Sanders, S. J., 275 Sandler, A. G., 138 Sansone, R. A., 181 Santelli, B., 142 Santinello, M., 187 Sapon-Shevin, M., 51 Saracino, J., 273, 274 Sathe, N., 278 Savant, M., 399 Saxena S., 213
Sayeski, K., 153, 158, 164, 173 Sayger, T. V., 125, 131, 132,
142, 143 Scahill, L., 276, 277 Scambler, D. J., 187 Scanlon, D., 52, 150 Scariano, Margaret M., 270 Scerri, T. S., 161 Schachar, R., 391 Schader, R. M., 422 Schatschneider, C., 152, 323 Scheeler, M. C., 164 Scheeren, A., 126 Scheetz, N. A., 324 Schendel, D. E., 274 Schertz, M., 58 Schick, B. B., 324 Schienebeck, C., 167 Schieve, L. A., 173, 271, 272 Schilmoeller, G. L., 138 Schindler, V. P., 81 Schlosser, R. W., 280 Schnoll, R., 161 Schnorr, R., 299 Schoeller, K., 87 Schoen, S. A., 271 Schoenau, E., 362 Schoolcraft, S. A., 125 Schrader, E. M., 52 Schraufnagel, C. D., 158, 169 Schriebman, L., 276 Schroeder, S. R., 8 Schuchardt, K., 152, 158,
159, 163 Schuh, M., 50 Schuler, A., 81 Schulte- Körne, G., 161 Schultz, T. R., 278, 279 Schumaker, J. B., 156 Schumm, J. S., 55, 68, 69, 70 Schwab, A., 195 Schwartz, H. D., 239, 240 Schwartz, I., 281 Schweitzer, J. A., 186 Schwellnus, H., 157 Scibarras, E., 185 Sciberras, E., 391 Science Codex, 374 Scott, A. J., 161 Scott, M. T., 412 Scott, T., 189, 193 Scotti, J., 126 Scruggs, T. E., 52, 55, 74, 156,
157, 166 Sedey, A. L., 126 Seelke, C. R., 102, 105 Seery, C. H., 251 Seethaler, P. M., 162 Seeto, M., 324 Segal, D. L., 392 Segal, L., 124 Segal, S., 126 Seigel, S., 167 Selby, E. C., 401 Selekman, J., 391 Seligman, M., 124, 137 Seltzer, M. M., 124, 126, 131,
133, 135 Semeniak, K., 165 Semler, O., 362 Semmelroth, C., 153, 173 Semrud-Clikeman, M., 158,
160, 173, 391 Sene, A. M., 114 Sengupta, S., 158 Serna, L., 183 Serrano, J. A., 169, 170 Severson, H. H., 189 Sexton, H. R., 195 Shaddy, D. J., 411
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AU T H O R I N D E X492
Shanahan, T., 116 Shandra, C. L., 168 Shapiro, E. S., 165 Shapiro-Barnard, S., 50 Sharma, J., 192 Sharma, J. M., 191 Sharma, S., 266 Sharon, A., 169 Shatuck, P., 126 Shaughnessy, M. F., 131, 135,
136, 137, 144 Shaul, S., 156 Shaunessy, E., 423, 424 Shaver, D. & Wei, X., 80, 81, 89 Shaver, D. M., 324 Sheehy, K., 156 Shelden, M. L., 139 Shepherd, S. J., 419 Sherman, M., 284 Shevin, Mayer, 271 Shifrer, D., 5 Shifter, D., 170 Shiran, A., 159 Shoenfeld, N. A., 200 Shogren, K., 144, 145 Shogren, K. A., 87, 169, 302 Shonkoff, J. P., 58, 60 Shore, B. M., 411, 419, 421,
422, 424 Shores, R. E., 186, 198 Shriver, M. D., 392 Shute, N., 392 Sibley, M. H., 392 Siegle, D., 401, 408, 409, 422 Sigafoos, J., 133, 220 Siklos, S., 127 Silberman, R. K., 326 Sileo, N. M., 286 Silverman, J., 138 Silverman, L. K., 422 Simi, P., 168, 169 Simmerman, S., 131 Simmons, A. B., 101, 105 Simon, T., 398 Simonoff, E., 159, 272 Simonsen, M., 173 Simpson, M., 142 Simpson, R. L., 186, 280 Sinclair, J., 87 Sinclair, M. F., 80 Sindelar, P. T., 190 Singer, G. H. S., 131 Singh, G. K., 276 Siperstein, G. N., 226 Sitlington, P. L., 84, 201 Skiba, R. J., 101, 105 Skinner, C., 99 Skinner, D., 107 Skinner, J. F., 236, 238 Skotko, B.G., 125, 135 Skuse, D., 274 Slater, D. N., 380 Sleeter, C. E., 97, 98, 108, 115 Slone, M., 324 Slonims, V., 159 Smith, A., 166, 391 Smith, B. J., 194, 195 Smith, C., 189, 193 Smith, D. J., 87 Smith, J. L. M., 166 Smith, K. A., 278 Smith, L., 278 Smith, L. E., 124, 131 Smith, L. M., 271 Smith, M. E., 95, 112, 115 Smith, P. M., 128 Smith, S., 184 Smith, T. L., 87 Smolkowski, K., 166 Snell, M., 299
Snell, M. E., 211, 219, 294, 297, 304
Snider, L. M., 172 Snow, K., 8 Snow, S. T., 201 Snowling, M., 245, 246, 247 Social Security Administration,
320 Solarsh, B., 102 Solis, M., 164, 168 Solomon, M., 281 Somba, M., 330 Sosniak, L. A., 409, 424 South, M., 132 Sowell, E. R., 161 Spaulding, L. S., 151, 152 Speer, L., 276 Spence, S. J., 272 Spencer, P. E., 324 Spencer, S., 55 Spina Bifida Association of
America, 361 Spinal Cord Injury Resource
Center, 363 Spinelli, C., 113 Spooner, F., 55, 211, 392 Sprague, J. R., 61, 299 Spratt, E. G., 274 Sprich, S. E., 392 Springer, C., 392 Squires, 108 Stacy, M. E., 271, 272 Stage, S., 187 Stahmer, A., 126 Stahmer, A. C., 276 Stalker, K., 125 Stanton, A., 137 Stanton, J. E., 27 Stanzione, C., 324 Stapleton, E. J., 161 Star, J. R., 158 Stark, C., 362 Starmer, H. M., 257 Stavans, I., 99 Stawski, M., 208 Steer, C. D., 271, 272, 275 Steere, D. E., 81, 82 Steeves, P., 141 Steiman, M., 273, 274 Steinberg, Z., 198 Steinen, N., 158 Steinfatt, T. M., 232 Steinweg, S. B., 327 Stenhoff, D. M., 89, 91 Stephens, K. R., 403 Sternberg, R. F., 398, 400, 402,
403, 408, 422 Sternberg, R. J., 210, 398,
401, 402 Stetter, M. E., 167 Stevens, R., 107 Stewart, D., 179 Stewart, M., 268 Stewart, S., 167 Stichter, J., 195 Stiens, S. A., 363 St. John, W., 126 St. Louis, K. O., 248 Stock, P., 158 Stockard, J., 166, 167 Stokes, J. E., 226 Stolz, H. E., 187 Stone, J. H., 144 Stoneman, Z., 126, 131, 132,
135, 136, 137, 142 Storm, B. C., 392 Stothers, M., 157 Stothers, M. E., 160 St. Peter, C., 126 Strain, P. S., 194, 195
Strang, J. F., 272 Strauss, L., 128, 129 Strickland, B. B., 276 Stroh, J., 391 Strohm, K., 135 Stromeyer, S., 194, 195 Stroul, B., 194 Stuart, E. A., 126 Stuebing, K. K., 150,
159, 165 Sturmey, P., 277 Subotnik, R. F., 401, 409, 411 Sugai, G., 70, 189, 193, 1
95, 198 Sullivan, A., 98, 112 Sullivan, S., 142 Sumi, W. C., 186 Summer, J. A., 139 Summers, J., 139 Summers, J. A., 126, 134,
141, 142 Sundeen, T. H., 169 Sung, M., 281 Supalo, C. A., 321 Susman, E. J., 187 Suter, J. C., 198 Svensson, H., 244 Swain, K. D., 53 Swanson, C., 167 Swanson, H. L., 152, 158, 165,
169, 173 Swearer, S., 5, 8, 9 Swearer, S. M., 185 Sweeny, S. M., 412, 416 Swerdfeger, A. L., 275 Sylvester, L., 169 SymTrend, 201 Synhorst, L., 187 Syrja, R. C., 245 Szidon, K., 278
Taanila, A., 126 Taft-Morales, M., 102, 105 Tager-Flusberg, H., 235, 239 Taggart, L., 169 Talbot, S., 138 Tamis- LeMonda, C. S., 104 Tan, T. S., 52 Tannenbaum, A. J., 408 Tannock, M. T., 55 Tannock, R., 126 Tapley, S., 211 TASH, 294, 309 Tashie, C., 50 Taub, M. B., 156 Taunt, H. M., 137 Tavassoli, T., 271 Tavernor, L., 281 Taylor, A., 392 Taylor, H., 281 Taylor, H. G., 161 Taylor, L., 188, 193, 380 Taylor, L. E., 275 Taylor, S. L., 170 Technology Related Assistance
for Individuals with Disabilities Act, 73
Teemant, A., 95, 108, 112, 115 Tellegen, C. L., 124 Terjeson, K. J., 162, 167 Terman, L., 398 Terman, L. M., 404 Ternus-Bellamy, A., 412 Terras, M., 169 Terras, M. M., 169 Tetreault, S., 327 Thampi, K., 99 Tharany, M., 330 Theiler, S., 153
The National Institute of Child Health and Human Develop- ment Early Child Care Research Network., 187
Theoharris, G., 50 Theule, J., 126 Thiemann-Bourque, K., 283 Thoma, C. A., 87 Thompson, C. K., 238, 239 Thompson, S. D., 269 Thomsen, D., 401, 410 Thomsen, P. H., 173, 391 Thorell, L. B., 391 Thorius, K. K., 192 Thurlow, M., 171, 211, 300 Thurlow, M. L., 80 Thurston, L. P., 112, 114 Thurstone, T. G., 27 Tiegerman-Farber, E., 236,
240, 269 Tierney, C. D., 252, 254, 255 Timbie, J., 277 Tirotta, R., 165 Tobin, T. J., 188 Todd, A.W., 299 Todd, A. W., 61 Toland, J., 168 Tollefsen, M., 339 Tomayko, M. C., 165 Tomlinson, C. A., 409, 412, 416 Torgesen, J. K., 166–167 Torrance, E. P., 400, 401, 410 Torras-Mañá, M., 239 Toscano, P. F., 184 Toste, J. R., 169 Toth, K., 283 Trainor, A. A., 169 Travis, R., 278 Treffert, D., 264, 272 Treffinger, D., 401 Treffinger, D. J., 398, 400,
410, 411 Tregay, J., 272 Trela, K., 211 Trent, S. C., 98, 105, 106, 112,
113, 115, 192 Triche, E. W., 272 Trimm, F., 172 Triplett, Donald Gray, 273 Troha, J. M., 321 Troia, G. A., 151 Trout, A. L., 186 Truijen, S., 327 Tucker, C. M., 189 Tunnicliffe, P., 126 Turbiville, Vicki., 134, 135 Turbiville, V. P., 135 Turcotte, A., 283 Turkeltaub, P. E., 240 Turnbull, A. P., 126, 128, 134,
139, 141, 142, 144, 145 Turnbull, R., 126, 128, 134,
139, 141, 143, 144 Turner, M. H., 138 Tyler, K., 107 Tynan, W. D., 143 Tzu- Jung, L., 63
Ueland, T., 154 Ulrich, M. E., 124, 128, 139 United Cerebral Palsy, 357, 358 United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Or- ganization (UNESCO)., 26
United Nations World Food Programme, 330
United States Department of Justice, 14
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 9
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AU T H O R I N D E X 493
University of Illinois at Chicago National Research and Training Center, 87
Unizycki, R. M., 193, 198, 199, 200
Unruh, S., 165 Unwin, G., 392 Uqdah, A., 107 U.S. Census Bureau, 99,
100, 101 U.S. Department of Commerce,
99 U.S. Department of Education,
36, 43, 80, 88, 105, 150, 154, 155, 158, 161, 168, 172, 178, 179, 184, 186, 190, 213, 223, 231, 238, 284, 298, 325, 328, 345, 379
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 64
U.S. Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions, 20
Uzzell, D., 142
Vacca, J., 139 Vail, C. O., 164 Valdes, K., 32 Vallen, T., 245, 247 Van, M. B., 189, 199 Van Acker, R., 193–194 van de Loo-Neus, G. H. H., 392 VanDerHeyden, A. M., 190 van der Meer, L., 220 Vanderswalmen, R., 161 Vanderwood, M., 187, 188 van Dyck, P. C., 276 Van Dycke, J. L., 141 van Hell, J. G., 416 van Kraayenoord, C. E., 126,
131, 134, 392 Van Naarden, B. K., 173 Vannest, K. J., 160 VanTassel-Baska, J., 409,
411–412, 416, 420, 424 Van Tol, D. G., 391 Van Waelvelde, H., 161 Vásquez, M J. R., 98 Vaughan, B. S., 391 Vaughn, A. J., 168 Vaughn, B. J., 138, 141 Vaughn, S., 55, 68, 69, 70, 104,
164, 168 Vazsonyi, A.T., 184, 187 Veal, M. L., 73 Veit, D., 169, 170 Velaski, A., 138, 142 Velazquez, F., 8 Velazquez Estrella, A., 165 Velde, S. V., 362 Vergun, A., 116 Verhoeven, L., 416 Verté, S., 135 Vidal-Abarca, E., 156 Viding, E., 187 Viel-Ruma, K., 158, 169 Vieno, A., 187 Villalobos, M., 276
Vincent, C. G., 188 Vinquist, K., 210 Vinson, B. P., 235 Violette, A. S., 158 Viscidi, E. W., 272 Visser, S. N., 173 Vohra, R., 126 Volkmar, F., 263, 268, 276, 277 Vollmer, L., 167 Volpe, R. J., 392 Von Berg, S. L., 256 von Ehrenstein, O. S., 274 Voss, K. S., 305 Vukovic, I., 240 Vukovic, M., 240 Vuksanovic, J., 240
Wacker, D., 210 Wade, S. E., 51 Waesche, J. S. B., 152 Wagner, M., 32, 80, 81, 89, 186 Wagner, R. K., 152, 166–167 Wagstaff, D. A., 239 Waitoller, F. R., 106 Waldron, N. L., 165, 172 Walker, B., 177, 179, 180, 186 Walker, D. J., 173 Walker, H. M., 179, 186, 189 Walker, P., 144 Walker, S. O., 161 Walkowiak, J., 158, 160 Wallace, G. L., 272 Waller, L., 153, 173 Wallinga, D., 161 Wang, C., 158 Wang, K., 33 Wang, M., 126, 128, 134, 144 Ward, D., 248 Ward, K., 302 Ward, M. J., 143 Warren, M. P., 123 Warren, S. H., 138 Warren, Z., 278 Warwick, I., 423 Waschbusch , D. A., 392 Wasem, R. E., 102, 105 Wass, S. V., 284 Watkins, R. V., 184 Watson, S. M. R., 165, 172, 173 Watts-Taffe, S., 104, 105, 108 Waugh, C. K., 163 Weathers, W. M., 257 Webber, J., 183 Weber, K. P., 165 Weber-Fox, C., 235, 251 Weed, K. Z., 108 Wehby, J. H., 178, 184, 186, 189,
190, 198 Wehman, P., 80, 81, 82, 85, 86,
87, 89, 226 Wehmeyer, M. L., 84, 87, 91,
142, 144, 201, 302 Wei, X., 158 Weinberg, W. A., 158, 169 Weisenbach, J. L., 190 Weiser, B., 158 Weisman, S. J., 356 Weismer, S. E., 269
Weisner T. S., 107 Weiss, A. L., 236 Weiss, J. A., 284 Weiss, M. P., 169 Weiss, P. L. T., 283 Weissman, P., 108, 115 Weitlauf, A. S., 278 Wells, J. C., 165 Wendt, O., 280 Werner, J., 136, 137, 138 Werner, M. A., 269, 275 Werner, S., 126, 208 Westberg, K. L., 416 Westling, D., 210, 213, 219, 220,
297, 304 Weyandt, L. L., 392 Whaley, K. T., 64 Wheelwright, S. J., 274 Whitaker, J., 391 Whitbread, K. M., 143 White, B. L., 56 White, C. M., 81 White, H. A., 392 White, S. W., 276, 277 Whitted. K.S., 187, 188,
194, 195 Wicks-Nelson, R., 184, 187,
188, 199 WIDA, 96, 97 Widerstrom, A. H., 61 Wiener, J., 126 Wiese, A. M., 102 Wiesner, L. A., 263 Wiggins, G. P., 113 Wiggins, R. D., 101 Wight, V. R., 99 Wijsman, E. M., 161 Wilcutt, E. G., 159 Wilens, T. E., 389 Wiley, A. L., 186 Wiley, S., 240, 323 Wilkinson, A., 158, 160 Wilkinson-Smith, A., 173 Willcutt, E. G., 389 Williams, D. F., 235, 238, 245 Williams, Donna, 270 Williams, F. E., 410 Williams, P. D., 137 Williams-Diehm, K., 32 Williamson, P., 391 Willis, C., 284 Willis, D., 302 Willoughby, T., 168 Wills, M. C., 272 Willson, V., 113, 115 Wilson, D., 198 Wilson, J. K., 165 Wilson, R., 190 Wiltshire, Stephen, 272 Winckel, M. V., 362 Wingers, L., 392 Winn, J. A., 391 Winn, S., 84 Winser, A., 58 Winters, R., 188 Witt, J. C., 190 Wittman, P., 128, 129 Wodka, E. L., 268
Wolf, M., 154 Wolfensberger, W., 10 Wolfswinkel, E. M., 257 Wong, C., 278, 279 Wong-Lo, M., 192 Wood, C., 391 Wood, J. W., 71 Woodman, C., 126, 129 Woodruff, D. W., 201 Woods, L. L., 141, 169 Woolfolk, A., 5, 8 Woolfson, L. M., 266 Woolsey, L., 201 Wornian, K., 143 Worrell, F. C., 401, 403,
408, 409 Worrell, J. L., 50, 91 Worthington, J., 142 Wozniak, T., 248 Wright, R. J., 112 Wu, S., 159 Wyatte, M. L., 138, 141
Xin, Y. P., 165
Yaden, D. B., 106 Yairi, E., 251 Yamamoto, M. S., 357 Yankay, J., 101 Yarger, H. A., 271, 272 Yates, G. B., 81 Yeo, S., 162 Yew, S. G. K., 169 Yiolitis, L., 128 Yoder, P., 235, 239 Yoshinaga-Itano, C., 126 Young, B. J., 180, 186 Young, D. M., 134 Young, E. L., 142, 180, 186,
188, 189 Young K. R., 142, 189 Youngstrom, E. A., 391 Ysseldyke, J. E., 300 Yu, J., 392 Yuhas, S. A., 363
Zablotsky, B., 126, 271, 272, 284
Zandt, F., 270 Zarate, M. A., 97 Zarcone, J. R., 281 Zhang, C., 142, 145 Zhang, D., 302 Zhang, N., 168 Zheng, C., 302 Zheng, X., 158, 165, 169 Zhu, D. C., 248, 249 Zickuhr, K., 166 Zima, B. T., 392 Zimmerman, A., 271, 272 Zipke, M., 167 Zone, J., 51 Zraick, R. I., 256 Zuber, J., 158 Zucker, C., 273
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494
Subject Index Tables are denoted by t follow-
ing the page number, figures are denoted by f.
AAC (Augmentative and alter- native communication)
autism spectrum disorders, 279–280
and cerebral palsy, 359 language disorders, 241 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 296, 302, 304 AAIDD (American Association
on Intellectual and De- velopmental Disabilities), 206–208
ABA (Applied behavior analy- sis) principles, 280
AbleGamers Foundation, 303 Abnormal behavior, 18 Academic achievement
achievement discrepancy, 158 emotional/behavioral
disorders, 186 hearing loss, 324 intellectual and developmen-
tal disabilities, 211 learning disabilities,
154–158, 163 mathematics, 158 reading, 155–157 severe and multiple
disabilities, 297 vision loss, 326 writing and spelling,
157–158 Academically talented, 403 Academic content, and
vision loss, 342–343 Academic language, 104–105 Academic skills, and intellec-
tual and developmental disabilities, 219
Acceleration, 416 Acceptance, 51 Achievement discrepancy, 158 Achievement tests, 409–410 Acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS) interventions for, 368–369 prevalence and causation,
367–368 universal precautions, 369f
Actresses, 205 Acute care, for traumatic brain
injury, 382–383 ADA (Americans with Disabili-
ties Act). See also Section 504/ADA
definition of, 12 future of, 19–21 and higher education, 171 major provisions of, 15 overview of, 12–15, 29t transition planning, 82
ADAAA (American with Disabilities Act Amend- ments Act), 14
Adaptations, 37 Adapted instruction, 71–72 Adapted physical education
teachers, 54 Adaptive behavior, 207
Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, 217
Adaptive behavior scales, 207, 217
Adaptive Behavior Scale- School, 217
Adaptive fit, 62, 299 Adaptive skills
emotional/behavioral disorders, 198
examples of, 207f intellectual and developmental
disabilities, 211 learning disabilities, 163 severe and multiple
disabilities, 297 teaching in secondary
education, 89 Adderall, 286 ADHD (Attention deficit/
hyperactivity disorder) adolescent years and
adulthood, 392–393 diagnostic criteria for, 390f interventions for, 391–392 and learning disabilities, 154 overview of, 180–181,
389–390 prevalence and causation, 391 social (pragmatic) communi-
cation disorder, 253 Adolescent books, 264t Adolescent years/education
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, 392–393
autism spectrum disorders, 277–278
emotional/behavioral disorders, 201
gifted, creative, and talented, 419–420
intellectual and developmen- tal disabilities, 223–227
learning disabilities, 168–171
severe and multiple disabilities, 304–305
Adult-onset diabetes, 373–375. See also Diabetes
Adult service agencies, 85–86 Adults with disabilities, research
on, 80–82 Adult years
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, 392–393
autism spectrum disorders, 289
categories of supports needed during, 225f
communication disorders, 259 emotional/behavioral
disorders, 197 gifted, creative, and
talented, 415 intellectual and developmen-
tal disabilities, 222–223 physical disabilities, 389 sensory disabilities, 350 severe and multiple
disabilities, 308 Affordable Care Act, 276 African Americans
assessment, 112
and autism spectrum disorders, 274
demographics, 99f emotional/behavioral
disorders, 186 gifted, creative, and
talented, 423 poverty, 100, 100f sickle-cell disease, 377 spina bifida, 361
AFT (Alpha-fetoprotein), 361 Age-appropriate classrooms,
51–52 Age-appropriate placement, 61 AIDS (acquired immunodefi-
ciency syndrome) interventions for, 368–369 prevalence and causation,
367–368 universal precautions, 369f
Air Carrier Access Act, 15 Albinism, 330 Alcohol consumption and trau-
matic brain injury, 380 Alcohol use during
pregnancy, 215 Alpha-fetoprotein (AFT), 361 Alternate assessments, 34,
39, 300 Amazon Kindle, 345 Amblyopia, 322 Amendments to the Individuals
with Disabilities Educa- tion Act, 29t
American Association on Intel- lectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), 206–208
American Foundation for the Blind, 346
American Indian/Native Alaskan, 99f, 100f
American Printing House for the Blind, 319, 343, 344
American Psychiatric Association, 152
American Sign Language (ASL), 304, 315, 324, 337–338, 337f
American Sign Language Browser, 339
American Speech-Language- Hearing Association, 160
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). See also Section 504/ADA
definition of, 12 future of, 19–21 and higher education, 171 major provisions of, 15 overview of, 12–15, 29t transition planning, 82
American with Disabilities Act Amendments Act (ADAAA), 14
Analytic intelligence, 402 Anat Baniel Method, 127 Anemia, 377 Anencephaly, 216 Anger management, 193, 195 Anophthalmia, 330 Anorexia nervosa, 181 Anoxia, 216
Antianxiety medications, 286 Anti-IgE therapy, 370 Anti-inflammatory medica-
tions, 370 Antiretroviral therapies, 368 Anti-Rh gamma globulin
(RhoGAM), 329 Anwar, Michael, 355 Anxiety disorders, 182 Aphasia, 237, 238, 240, 380 Applied behavior analysis
(ABA) principles, 280 Apps, 280, 339 AppyAutism site, 280 The ARC of the United States,
209, 225 Articulation problems, 211 ASD. See Autism spectrum
disorders (ASD) Asian Americans, 99f, 100f,
112, 361 ASL (American Sign
Language), 304, 315, 324, 337–338, 337f
Asperger, Hans, 264 Asperger’s syndrome, 130, 264,
266, 268 Assessment
child onset fluency disorder, 249
culturally and linguistically responsive, 112–114
emotional/behavioral disorders, 190–192
functional, 299 functional behavioral, 190 gifted, creative, and talented,
408–410, 410t hearing loss, 331–332 language disorders, 239 nondiscriminatory and
multidisciplinary, 31 preschool services, 61 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 299–306 social (pragmatic) communi-
cation disorder, 253–254 special education, 37t, 38 speech sound disorder, 245 vision loss, 332–334 voice and resonance
disorders, 257 Assessment bias, 112–113 Assessment factors, emotional/
behavioral disorders, 190 Assistive game controllers,
303 Assistive technology
apps for autism, 280 autism spectrum disorders,
279–280 DIY assistive game control-
lers, 303 Ekso exoskeletons, 365 elementary school years, 73 Hawking’s use of, 242 hearing loss, 338–340 intellectual and developmen-
tal disabilities, 220, 224 overview of, 73 for people with intellectual
disabilities, 224 Renzulli Learning, 418
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S U B J E C T I N D E X 495
severe and multiple disabili- ties, 302, 303, 304
software for writing, 167 Strategy Tutor, 74 SymTrend ADL, 201 teaching reading, 305 used by Hawking, 241, 242 VGo school-based robot, 359
Association for Children with Learning Disabilities, 10
Asthma, 369–371 Asthma management plan,
370, 370t Astigmatism, 321, 322 Athetosis, 298 Athletes, 313–314, 325, 397 Atresia, 329 Atropinization, 347 ATS (Audible traffic signals),
347 Attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) adolescent years and adult-
hood, 392–393 diagnostic criteria for, 390f interventions for, 391–392 and learning disabilities, 154 overview of, 180–181,
389–390 prevalence and causation, 391 social (pragmatic) communi-
cation disorder, 253 Attention problems, 159 Attitudinal bias, 107 Atypical antipsychotic
medications, 286–287 Audible traffic signals
(ATS), 347 Audiologist, 332 Audition, 315 Auditory approach to teaching
communication skills, 335 Auditory media, 345 Auditory perception, 160 Auditory process, 315–316 Auditory processing
disorder, 160 Augmentative and alternative
communication (AAC) autism spectrum disorders,
279–280 and cerebral palsy, 359 language disorders, 241 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 296, 302, 304 Authentic assessment, 113–114,
114t, 299 Autism Behavioral Checklist
(ABC), 66 Autism Internet Modules, 284 Autism Speaks, 277, 287 Autism Speaks website, 265 Autism spectrum
disorders (ASD) adolescent education and
transition to adulthood, 277–278
adult years, 289 aspects of, 266f causes and risk factors of, 275 characteristics of, 268–271 community support, 287–289 definitions and classifications
of, 265–268 early childhood years/educa-
tion, 276–277, 287–288 educational classification of,
267–268 elementary years/education,
277, 288
evidence-based practices, 278–286, 279t
and family, 130 identification and assessment
of, 275–276 identification of culturally
and linguistically diverse children, 274
interventions and treatments for, 276–289
introduction to, 263–265 in the media, 264–265,
264–265t prevalence of, 272–274 psychological and medical
interventions, 286–287 secondary and transition
years, 288–289 social (pragmatic) communi-
cation disorder, 253 and social media, 56 special education eligibil-
ity, 31 unique strengths, 272
Autism Treatment Network, 287
Autobiographies and memoirs, 270
Average, 5
Baniel, Anat, 127 Barrier-free facility, 20 Barron, Judy, 270 Barron, Sean, 270 Basic interpersonal communi-
cation skills (BICS), 104 Baty, Lyndon, 359 Bayley Scales of Infant and
Toddler Development, 239 BEH (Bureau of Education for
the Handicapped), 28 Behavioral and Emotional Rat-
ing Scale—Second Edition (BERS-2), 191, 192f
Behavioral approaches, 255 Behavioral contracts, 168 Behavioral disorders. See
Emotional/behavioral disorders
Behavioral incentive contract, 140f
Behavioral interventions, and learning disabilities, 167–168
Behavioral problems, and traumatic brain injury, 380–381
Behavioral strategies, 280–281 Behavior intervention plans
(BIPs), 190 Behavior modification
strategies, 392 Behind-the-ear aid, 332, 335 Belonging, 51 BERS-2 (Behavioral and
Emotional Rating Scale— Second Edition), 191, 192f
Best Buddies International, 210 BICS (Basic interpersonal com-
munication skills), 104 Bicultural–bilingual approach,
337–338 Bidirectional relationships, 133 Binet, Alfred, 398 Bipolar disorders, 182–183 BIPs (Behavior intervention
plans), 190 Birth, problems during and
after, 216 Blindness, 319, 320–321
Bliss, J. C., 345 Blogging/blogs, 358 Blue laws, 10 Blurred vision, 321 Board of Education of the
Hendrick Hudson School District v. Rowley, 29t, 31
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligences, 403t
Body-worn aids, 332 Boham, Kim, 417 Bowel and bladder control,
362, 371 Boxtel, Amanda, 365 Braille, 321, 343f, 344–345 Braille, Louis, 344 Braille ‘n Speak, 344 Brain injury, 238 Breathy speech, 256 Bremmer, Brandenn, 421 Bremmer, Patricia, 421 Bring Change 2 Mind, 182–183 Bronchodilators, 370 Brown v. Board of Education
of Topeka, Kansas, 10, 28, 28t
Bulimia nervosa, 181 “Bullet theory,” 156 Bullying, 184–185, 284 Buphthalmos, 330 Bureau of Education for the
Handicapped (BEH), 28
CALP (Cognitive/academic lan- guage proficiency), 104
Captain America, 284, 286, 286f Career choices, 420 Career education, 91 Carl D. Perkins Vocational
and Applied Technology Education Act, 82
Case study on embracing diversity
autism spectrum disorders, 66 communication disorders, 247 cultural and linguistic
diversity, 117 diabetes, 375 Don-Wook Shin, 412 emotional/behavioral
disorders, 192 exceptionalities and families,
133 gifted, creative, and talented,
412 hearing loss, 336 identification of culturally
and linguistically diverse children with ASD, 274
insulin infusion pumps, 375 intellectual and developmen-
tal disabilities, 226 language barriers, 42 learning disabilities, 170 multidisciplinary team, 117 PECS (Picture Exchange Com-
munication System), 306 transition planning, 83
Catabolic steroids, 366 Cataracts, 321, 322, 330 Catchings, Harvey, 313 Catchings, Tamika, 313–314 Catch the Stars Foundation
(CTSF), 314 Catheterization, 298, 364 CBAs (Curriculum-based as-
sessments), 73–74, 162 CBMs (Curriculum-based
measurements), 73–74
CCTV (Closed-circuit televi- sion), 346–347
Ceiling effects, 410 Center-based programs, for
preschoolers, 59–60 Center for Research on Educa-
tion, Diversity & Excel- lence (CREDE), 110
Center for Talent Development, 417
Central auditory disorder, 318 Cerebral cortex, 318 Cerebral palsy (CP)
interventions for, 357–359 introduction to, 356–357 prevalence and causation, 357 social barriers, 358 social media, 127
CF transfer regulator (CFTR), 376
Chang, Xeeb, 336 Child abuse, 187–188 Child behavior checklist,
190–191, 191f Child-find system, 60 Childhood anxiety disorders,
182 Childhood schizophrenia, 182 Child onset fluency disorder
causes and risk factors of, 249
characteristics and prevalence of, 248–249
definitions and classifications of, 248
identification and assessment of, 249
interventions and treatments for, 251
Child prodigies, 407 Children of migrant
families, 101 Child-study team, 36 Chromosomal disorders, 214 Civil Rights Act of 1964, 12, 13 Clark’s Structured Gifted
Program, 413f, 415 Classification based on needed
support, 209 Classroom rules, 282f Classroom strategies and trau-
matic brain injury, 386f CLDLs (Culturally and
linguistically diverse learners), 95
Cleft palate, 243–244, 244f, 246, 256
Clinically derived classifica- tions, 180–182
Close, Glenn, 182–183 Closed-caption television, 338 Closed-circuit television
(CCTV), 346–347 Cloughesy, Catherine, 412 Club Penguin, 56 Cluttering, 248 CMV (Congenital cytomegalovi-
rus), 328–329 Cochlear implant, 320, 331–332 Cognition, 159 Cognitive/academic language
proficiency (CALP), 104 Cognitive-behavioral therapies,
193–194, 255, 392 Cognitive development, 411 Collaboration. See Multidisci-
plinary collaboration Collaboration, and special edu-
cation teachers, 65–67 Collaborative ethic, 52
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S U B J E C T I N D E X496
Collaborative teams, and emotional/behavioral disorders, 189–190
College, and learning disabili- ties, 170–171
College and career readiness, instructional focus for
academic skills and access to general curriculum, 88–89
adaptive and functional life skills, 89
college preparation, 89–90 employment preparation,
90–91 self-determination, 87
College preparation, 89–90 Combat soldiers and traumatic
brain injury, 379, 383 Combined type of ADHD, 389 Comics, 264t Common Core State Standards,
67 Communication development
conceptual model of, 231–232, 232f
conceptual model of commu- nication, language, and speech, 233f
expressive and receptive language, 232–233
speech and language, 233–234
speech and language develop- ment, 234–236
Communication disorders child onset fluency disorder,
248–251 community support, 258–259 development of communica-
tion, 231–236 introduction to, 231 language disorders, 236–242 social (pragmatic) communi-
cation disorder, 251–255 speech sound disorder,
242–247 voice and resonance
disorders, 255–257 Communication media, and
vision loss, 344–347 Communication services, for
autism spectrum disorders, 279–280
Communication skills assistive technology, 224 autism spectrum disorders,
267t emotional/behavioral
disorders, 195 hearing loss, 335–338 intellectual and developmen-
tal disabilities, 219, 220 Communities of practice, 142 Community-based systems,
193, 196–197 “Community of Caring”
programs, 212 Community participation,
223, 225 Community-referenced
instruction, 91 Community reintegration, 385.
See also Community sup- port for lifelong inclusion
Community services, and vision loss, 347
Community support for lifelong inclusion
autism spectrum disorder, 287–289
communication disorders, 258–259
emotional/behavioral disor- ders, 196–197
gifted, creative, and talented, 414–415
intellectual and developmen- tal disabilities, 221–223
physical disabilities, 387–389
sensory disabilities, 348–350
severe and multiple disabili- ties, 296, 307–308
Comorbidity, 154 Compassionate Friends,
366–367 Computer-assisted instruction,
166–167 Computer-centered technolo-
gies, 359 Computerized tomography (CT),
372, 382 Computers, and hearing
loss, 339 Conceptual adaptive skills,
207f Concussions, 382 Condensed schooling, 416, 419 Conduct disorder, 181, 185–186,
185f Conductive hearing loss, 317 Conflict resolution, 193, 195 Conformity, 5 Congenital cytomegalovirus
(CMV), 328–329 Congenital rubella, 216 Congenital toxoplasmosis
infection, 329 Connecticut Code of
1650, 10 Consultation, and special
education teachers, 67 Continuous assessment, 357 Continuum of placements,
35–36 Contusions, 382 Conversational rules, 252–253 Conversational turn-taking,
252 Cooperative learning, 55 Coordinated early intervening
services, 37 Coordination, and special
education teachers, 67 Cornea, 318 Cortical visual impairment
(CVI), 330 Co-teachers, 67, 89, 90 Council for Exceptional
Children, 264 Counseling, and emotional/
behavioral disorders, 199–200
Court cases, 28–29, 28–29t CP (Cerebral palsy)
interventions for, 357–359 introduction to, 356–357 prevalence and causation, 357 social barriers, 358 social media, 127
C-Print, 339 Creativity tests, 410 CREDE (Center for Research on
Education, Diversity & Excellence), 110
Criterion-referenced assess- ment, 162
Cross-age tutoring, 55 Crowe, Taylor, 278, 285
CRT (Culturally and linguisti- cally responsive teaching), 96, 97–98, 107–110
Cruise, Tom, 7 CT (Computerized tomography),
372, 382 CTSF (Catch the Stars Founda-
tion), 314 Cued speech, 338 Cultural and ethnic diversity,
99. See also Culturally and linguistically diverse learners (CLDLs)
Cultural and linguistic diversity 2015 population profile, 99f assessment, culturally and
linguistically responsive, 112–114
autism spectrum disorders, 274 culturally and linguistically
responsive teaching, 107–110
culturally responsive special education, 115–118
effects of population trends on schools, 102–105
gifted, creative, and talented, 423–424
introduction to, 95–96 language acquisition, 114 nondiscriminatory and multi-
disciplinary collaboration, 111–112
parental involvement, 110–111
perspectives for professionals, 144–145
population trends among, 98–102
process checklist, 109t proper professional training,
114–115 in special education, 105–115
Cultural bias, 107 Cultural–familial intellectual
disabilities, 217 Culturally and linguistically
diverse learners (CLDLs), 95
Culturally and linguistically diverse learners with disabilities, 118
Culturally and linguistically responsive assessment, 112–114
Culturally and linguistically responsive education, 96–98
Culturally and linguistically responsive teaching (CRT), 96, 97–98, 107–110
Culturally responsive special education, 115–118
Cultural pluralism, 97–98 Cultural responsiveness, 97 Curriculum-based assessments
(CBAs), 73–74, 162 Curriculum-based measure-
ments (CBMs), 73–74 Curriculum of control, 198 Curriculum of noninstruction,
198 Cutting, 182 CVI (Cortical visual impair-
ment), 330 Cyberbullying, 184 Cystic fibrosis, 376–377
Daily living skills, 341–343 Daily picture schedule, 283f
DAP (Developmentally appropriate practices), 61, 62f, 301
Deaf, 4 Deaf-blindness, 295, 298 Deaf culture, 324–325 Deafness, 315, 316–317 Decision-making skills, 219 Defective speech learning, 245 Deficit education models, 107 Delayed speech, 235 Demosthenes, 231 Denasality, 256 Dental structure, 244, 246 Depressive behaviors, 184 Design challenges, 303 Developmental aphasia, 237 Developmental conditions,
271–272 Developmental delays, 61, 218 Developmental disabilities, 207.
See also Intellectual and developmental disabilities
Developmentally appropriate practices (DAP), 61, 62f, 301
Developmentally supportive care, 59
Developmental milestones, 218, 235, 299
Developmental screening for vision loss, 334
Deviant, 18 Diabetes, 373–376 Diagnosis, 127–128. See also
Assessment Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders autism spectrum disorders,
265–267, 266t communication disorders, 236 emotional/behavioral disor-
ders, 180 learning disabilities, 152 social (pragmatic) communi-
cation disorder, 252 Diagnostic criteria, for atten-
tion deficit/hyperactivity disorder, 390f
Diagnostic Reading Scales, 163 Diana v. State Board of Educa-
tion, 112 Diet modifications, 373, 377 Differences, human
approaches to understand- ing, 5–6
cultural approach, 6, 6f developmental approach, 5, 6f self-labeling, 6, 6f societal views on, 9–12
Differential education, 423 Differentiated education,
72–73, 412 Differentiated learning, 419 Differentiation engine, 418 “Differently abled,” 3 Diplegia, 357t Direct behavioral therapy, 251 Direct instruction, 219, 236 Disability
ADA definition of, 14 definition of, 4 and giftedness, 422–423 health care professionals, 15–17 as a label, 3 psychologists, 17–18 social services professionals,
18–19 Disadvantaged and gifted
students, 409, 423–424
00976_subject ind_rev02.indd 496 19/08/15 11:47 AM
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S U B J E C T I N D E X 497
Discrimination, 11–12 Discrimination problems, 159 Disease model, 15 Disorder, 4 Disproportionality, 98 Disruptive, impulse control, and
conduct disorders, 181 Diversity, 42, 51, 423–424. See
also Case study on em- bracing diversity; Cultural and linguistic diversity
DMD (Duchenne-type muscular dystrophy), 366
Dolly Gray Children’s Literature Award, 264
Donald T., 273 Double hemiplegia, 357t Double vision, 322 Down syndrome, 125, 127,
213, 214 Dropout rates, and emotional/
behavioral disorders, 186 Dual diagnosis, 295 Dual-immersion education, 97 Dual-language immersion,
96–97 Dual sensory impairments, 295 Duchenne-type muscular dys-
trophy (DMD), 366 “Duty to warn,” 368 Dyadic relationships, 133 Dynamic dimension of gifted-
ness, 407, 407f Dyslexia, 156
Ear, structure of, 316f Ear infections. See Otitis media Early childhood years/education
autism spectrum disorders, 276–277, 287–288
communication disorders, 258 early intervention, impor-
tance of, 57–58, 218 emotional/behavioral disor-
ders, 194–195, 196 evidence-based instructional
approaches, 58–65 family-centered support,
services, and programs, 139–140
gifted, creative, and talented, 411, 414
inclusion and multidisci- plinary collaboration in, 48–75
intellectual and developmen- tal disabilities, 218, 221
introduction to, 56–57 physical disabilities, 387 sensory disabilities, 348–349 service delivery, 59–60 services provided to, 58–59f severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 300–301, 307 Early intervention, 57–58, 218.
See also Preschool-age children
Early special education pro- grams, 27
Early Start Denver Model, 281 EBLs (Emergent bilingual
learners), 95–96, 102–103t, 102–104, 103f
E-buddies, 210 Echolalia, 268, 270 Ecological assessment, 299 Edison, Thomas, 6, 171 Edmodo, 56 Education
in the 20th century, 26–28
in the 21st century, 42–44 assistive technology in, 224 culturally and linguistically
responsive, 96–98 future of, 45–46 history of for students with
disabilities, 26–28 Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA), 29–36
as a privilege, 27 reasonable accommodations,
44 right to, 28–29 role of national government,
28 Section 504/ADA, 44 special education referral,
assessment, planning, and placement process, 36–42, 37t
Educational service options, 35f Education for all, 26–27,
69–70, 81 Education for All Handicapped
Children Act, 12, 29, 29t, 264
Education for All Handicapped Children Act Amendments, 29t
Education of the Handicapped Act, 57–58
Education strategies, and vision loss, 340–342
Edutopia, 106 EEGs (Electroencephalograms),
372 Einstein, Albert, 7, 171 Ekso exoskeletons, 365 Elaboration, 398 Electroencephalograms
(EEGs), 372 Electronic mobility devices,
342 Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA), 43 Elementary school years/
education academic instruction and
support, 165 adapted instruction, 71–72 assistive technology, 73 autism spectrum disorders,
277, 288 behavioral interventions,
167–168 communication disorders, 258 curriculum-based assessment/
measurement, 73–74 differentiated instruction,
72–73 education for all approach,
69–70 emotional/behavioral
disorders, 195, 196–197, 198–200
evidence-based instructional approaches, 65–74
family-centered support, ser- vices, and programs, 140
gifted, creative, and talented, 411–419
inclusion, 65–68 inclusion and multidisci-
plinary collaboration in, 48–75
individualization, 68–69 intellectual and developmen-
tal disabilities, 218–223 intensive instruction, 69
learning disabilities, 164–168 mathematics, 165 multitiered system of support,
70–71 physical disabilities, 387–388 reading, 165–167 sensory disabilities, 349–350 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 302–304, 307–308 universal design for learning,
71–72 Elimination disorders, 182 ELLs (English language learn-
ers), 96 ELP (English language devel-
opment), 113 ELs (English learners), 96 Embryonic stem cells, 364 Emergence (Grandin), 270 Emergent bilingual learners
(EBLs), 95–96, 102–103t, 102–104, 103f
Emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD). See also Attention deficit/hyperactivity dis- order (ADHD)
academic achievement, 186 adolescent education and
transition to adulthood, 201
causes of, 187–188 characteristics and prevalence
of, 183–186 classification systems,
179–180 clinically derived classifica-
tions, 180–182 collaborative teams, 189–190 community support, 196–197 definitions, 178–179 early childhood education,
194–195 elementary education, 195,
198–200 identification and assessment
of, 188–192 intelligence, 183 interventions and treatments
for, 193–201 introduction to, 177–178 social-adaptive behavior,
183–186 statistically derived classifi-
cation system, 180 wraparound services, 193,
198–200 Emotional disturbance, 178–179 Employment
and ADA, 15 assistive technology in, 224 secondary education and
transition planning, 81 transition planning form, 84f
Employment preparation, 90–91, 225–227
Employment rates, and emo- tional/behavioral disor- ders, 186
Encephalitis, 216 English as a second language
(ESL)/bilingual education, 96–98
English language development (ELP), 113
English language learners (ELLs), 96
English language skills, and hearing loss, 323–324, 338
English learners (ELs), 96
Enrichment, for gifted, cre- ative, and talented people, 416–418
Environmental catalysts, 402f Environmental context,
208, 224 Environmental factors
and hearing loss, 329–330 and learning disabilities, 161 and poverty, 101
Epidural hematoma, 382, 384f Epilepsy, 272, 298, 371–373 Epiphora, 334 E-readers, 345 ESEA (Elementary and Second-
ary Education Act), 43 ESL (English as a second
language)/bilingual education, 96–98
Esotropia, 322 Etiology, 275 Eugenics, 9–10 Eunice Kennedy Shriver Na-
tional Center for Commu- nity of Caring, 212
Evidence-based inclusive schools, characteristics of, 51–52
Evidence-based instructional approaches
elementary school years, 65–74
preschool years/services, 58–65
transition from preschool to elementary school, 64–65
Evidence-based practices for autism spectrum disorders
behavioral strategies, 280–281
for children, youth, and young adults, 279t
communication services, 279–280
functional skills instruction, 284
positive and creative educa- tional services, 284, 286
social skill development, 281–284
visual structure and support, 281
Exceptional, 4 Exceptionalities and families
challenges, 126 diagnosis, determination of,
127–128 family relationships, 131–138 family support, providing,
138–145 family systems approach,
124–126 introduction to, 123–124 parental reactions, 126–130 positive impacts of children
with disabilities, 125–126 Exoskeletons, 365 Exotropia, 322 Expressive language, 232–233 Expressive language
disorder, 237 Expressive language skills,
342–343 Extended family, training
for, 144 Extended family relationships,
137–138 Extensive support, 209 Externalizing behaviors, 180 Eye, anatomy of, 318–319, 319f
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S U B J E C T I N D E X498
Eyeballs, 322f Eye-hand coordination, 223,
327, 381 EZ Keys, 242
Facebook, 56, 166, 339 FAE (Fetal alcohol effects), 215 “Failure to bond” theories, 275 Families and exceptionalities
challenges, 126 diagnosis, determination of,
127–128 family relationships, 131–138 family support, providing,
138–145 family systems approach,
124–126 introduction to, 123–124 parental reactions, 126–130 positive impacts of children
with disabilities, 125–126 Family-based programs, 59–60,
193, 193f, 195 Family-centered care, 139f,
195, 301 Family counseling, 420 Family relationships
extended family relation- ships, 137–138
father-child relationships, 134–135
mother-child relationships, 133–134
sibling relationships, 135–137 spousal or partner relation-
ships, 131–133 Family support, providing
early childhood years, 139–140
elementary school years, 140 elements of successful
partnerships, 142–143 family-centered support, ser-
vices, and programs, 139 parents, families, and part-
nerships, 141–143 positive behavior support,
141–142 secondary school years,
140–141 training for families, 143 training for siblings, grand-
parents, and extended family, 144
transition to adult years, 141 Family systems approach,
124–126 Famous people who are
differently abled, 7 FAPE (Free and appropriate
public education), 31, 43 FAS (Fetal alcohol
syndrome), 215 Father-child relationships,
134–135 Fathers
responses of, 134–135 training preferences of, 135 well-being of, 125
Federal legislation, 28–29t Feeding and eating
disorders, 181 Fernandina Beach, Florida, 13 Fetal alcohol effects (FAE), 215 Fetal alcohol syndrome
(FAS), 215 Field of vision, 321f Figure-ground discrimination,
159 Fine motor skills, 223, 327
First aid for seizures, 371f First language (L1), 97, 103, 103f Fisher, Cheri, 13 Fitzpatrick, Mary Beth, 320 Fixated interests, 270 Flabby Physics, 303 Flexible placements, 346 Floortime therapy, 281 Fluence disorder. See Child on-
set fluency disorder FM-RF (Frequency-modulated
radio-frequency) system, 335
FM units, 335 Folic acid deficiencies, 361 Forde, Laura, 358 Formal assessment, 161–162 Formal supports, 51,
81–82, 209 Fourteenth Amendment, 31 Fragile X syndrome, 214–215 Fraternal twins, 161 Free and appropriate public
education (FAPE), 31, 43 Frequency-modulated radio-
frequency (FM-RF) system, 335
Friday’s Kids Respite, 132 Friendship Circle of Michigan, 33 Full inclusion, 50 Functional articulation disor-
ders, 243 Functional assessment, 299 Functional behavioral
assessments, 190 Functional blindness, 321 Functional life skills, 89, 284,
302, 304 Functional math skills, 297 Functional movement, 61 Functional reading
programs, 219 Funds of knowledge, 111
García, Ofelia, 96 Gastronomy tube feeding, 298 Gender, and autism spectrum
disorders, 274 Gender-specific socialization,
422 General curriculum, 34, 43,
51–52, 88–89 General education
partnership with special edu- cation, 65–68
teachers as part of multidis- ciplinary school-wide as- sistance teams, 54
teachers in, 67–68 Generalization, 210 Genetic counselor, 17 Genetic factors. See also
Heredity and intellectual and devel-
opmental disabilities, 214–215
in learning disabilities, 161 Geneticist, 17 Genetic screening, 333–334 Genocide, 9 George Lucas Educational
Foundation, 106 Gifted, creative, and talented
acceleration, 416 adolescent education and
transition to adulthood, 419–420
adult years, 415 career choices and
challenges, 420
catalysts for the development of, 402f
causes associated with, 406–408
characteristics and prevalence of, 403–406
characteristics of creative students, 406t
community support, 414–415 definitions and classifications
of, 401–403 early childhood years/
education, 411, 414 elementary school years/
education, 411–419 enrichment, 416–418 historical developments,
398–401, 400f historically neglected groups,
421–424 identification and assessment
of, 408–410, 410t instructional approaches,
412–413 interventions and treatments
for, 411–413, 415–424 introduction to, 397–398 Javits Gifted Characteristics
Checklist for Underrepre- sented Populations, 423f
mentoring, 420 positive, neutral, and negative
characteristics, 405t problems and challenges of,
420–421 secondary and transition
years, 415 service delivery systems, 413,
415–416 special programs and schools,
418–419 Gifted Development Center, 417 Giftedness, 400–401, 400f Gifts and talents, 4 Gilman, Barbara Jackson, 417 Glaucoma, 330 Glee, 205 Glucose, 373–374 Goldberg, Whoopi, 7 Governor’s schools, 418 Graduation rates, and
emotional/behavioral disorders, 186
Grammar, 233–234 Grammar Fitness, 167 Grandin, Temple, 270 Grand mal seizures, 371 Grandparents, 137–138, 144 Gross motor skills, 220, 223 Guide dogs, 342 Guilford’s structure of the intel-
lect, 399f, 400 Guinness Book of World Re-
cords, 399
HAART (Highly active antiret- roviral therapy), 368
Habbo.com, 56 Halderman v. Pennhurst State
School and Hospital, 11 Handicap, 4 Handicapped Children’s Early
Education Program (HCEEP), 57–58
Handwriting, 157 Haptic perception, 159, 160 Hard of hearing, 317. See also
Hearing loss Harrington, Catherine, 412 Harris Communications, 339
Hawking, Stephen, 7, 241, 242 HCA (High cognitive ability),
411 HCEEP (Handicapped Children’s
Early Education Program), 57–58
Head Mobility Challenge, 303 Head Start, 64, 218 Health care professionals, role
of, 15–17 Health care services, 16–17, 347 Health disorders, 356.
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 367–369
adult years, 389 asthma, 369–371 attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder, 389–393 cerebral palsy, 356–359 community support,
387–389 cystic fibrosis, 376–377 definition of, 356 diabetes, 373–376 early childhood years, 387 elementary school years,
387–388 human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), 367–369 introduction to, 355–356 muscular dystrophy, 365–367 secondary and transition
years, 388–389 seizure disorders (epilepsy),
371–373 sickle-cell disease, 377–379 spina bifida, 360–363 spinal cord injury, 363–365 traumatic brain injury,
379–386 Hearing aids, 332, 335 Hearing loss
age of onset, 317 anatomical site of, 317–318 assessment of, 331–332 assistive technology, 338–340 Catchings and, 313–314 causes and risk factors of,
328–330 characteristics of, 323–325 classification of, 318, 318t deaf-blindness, 295, 298 deafness, 315, 316–317 definitions of, 316 delayed speech, 235 ear, structure of, 316f hard of hearing, 317 intervention strategies,
334–340 introduction to, 315 prevalence of, 325
Hearing process, 315–316 Hematoma, 384f Hemiplegia, 357t Heredity
asthma, 369–370 cystic fibrosis, 376 diabetes, 374 hearing loss, 328 and intelligence, 406–407 muscular dystrophy, 365, 366 sickle-cell disease, 377 spina bifida, 361
Hertz (Hz), 316 High cognitive ability
(HCA), 411 Highly active antiretroviral
therapy (HAART), 368 High school completion, 80–81 Hillegas, Tara, 25–26
00976_subject ind_rev02.indd 498 19/08/15 11:47 AM
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S U B J E C T I N D E X 499
Hispanics/Latinos assessment, 112 autism spectrum disorders,
274 demographics, 99, 99f poverty, 100, 100f sickle-cell disease, 377 spina bifida, 361
HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus), 216, 367–369, 369f
Hoarse-sounding speech, 256 Hoffman, Dustin, 264 Holdman, Tom, 249, 250–251 Human differences
approaches to understand- ing, 5–6
cultural approach, 6, 6f developmental approach, 5, 6f self-labeling, 6, 6f societal views on, 9–12
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 216, 367–369, 369f
Husband support and involve- ment, 131–132
Hydrocephalus, 216, 329, 330, 362
Hyperactivity, 154, 160, 172–173
Hyperkinetic behavior, 160 Hyperlexia, 272 Hypernasality, 256–257 Hyperopia, 321 Hyperopic eyeballs, 322f Hyper-responsiveness, 270–271 Hyponasality, 256, 257 Hypo-responsiveness, 270–271 Hypotonia, 298 Hz (Hertz), 316
IC (Individualized care), 201 IDDM (Insulin-dependent dia-
betes mellitus), 373–374. See also Diabetes
IDEA. See Individuals with Dis- abilities Education Act
Identical twins, 161 Identification and assessment
autism spectrum disorders, 275–276
child onset fluency disorder, 249
emotional/behavioral disor- ders, 188–192
gifted, creative, and talented, 408–410, 410t
intellectual and developmen- tal disabilities, 217
language disorders, 239 learning disabilities, 161–163 sensory disabilities, 331–334 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 299 social (pragmatic) communi-
cation disorder, 253–254 speech sound disorder, 245 voice and resonance disor-
ders, 257 Idiosyncratic language, 270 IEP. See Individualized educa-
tion program IFSP (Individualized family
service plan), 30, 58, 143, 145, 195
ILP (Individualized language plan), 240
Immigration, 100–101 Immune system, 367 Impairment, 4 Impulse control, 181
Inclusive education characteristics of, 51–52 definition of, 50 in early childhood and
elementary school years, 48–75
general education/special education partnership, 65–68
indicators of quality in, 63f intellectual and developmen-
tal disabilities, 223 and learning disabilities,
172–173 vs. mainstreaming, 50 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 305–306 Inclusive pedagogy framework,
116f Independence, 223, 225 Independent travel, 341–342 Individualization, 68–69 Individualized care (IC), 201 Individualized education pro-
gram (IEP) access to general curriculum,
52 autism spectrum disorders,
277–278 cerebral palsy, 355 components of, 34 cultural and linguistic diver-
sity, 145 in culturally responsive
special education, 115 development of, 37t, 38–39 emotional/behavioral
disorders, 195 learning disabilities, 172 overview of, 32–34 parental involvement, 140 point card, 199f postsecondary goals, 82 preschool services, 61 as a provision of IDEA, 31 sample of, 40–41f severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 301 traumatic brain injury, 385 vision loss, 340–341
Individualized family service plan (IFSP), 30, 58, 143, 145, 195
Individualized language plan (ILP), 240
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
access to general curriculum, 51–52
autism spectrum disorders, 264, 267–268
characteristics of evidence- based inclusive schools, 51
communication disorders, 231
compared to Section 504/ ADA, 44–45t
deafness, 317 early intervention services
under, 58, 58–59f eligibility, 30–31 emotional/behavioral disor-
ders, 178 family rights, 123–124 intellectual and developmen-
tal disabilities, 218 introduction to, 29–30 language disorders, 237 learning disabilities, 150–151,
152–153
least restrictive environment, 35–36
major provisions of, 31–36 multiple disabilities, 295 overview of, 29t physical disabilities, 356 reauthorization of, 112 research funding, 315 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 300 special education and
related services, 30 transition planning require-
ments, 82–83, 169 on traumatic brain injury, 379
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 29t
Infants and toddlers, 58–59f, 300–301. See also Early childhood years/ education
Infant stimulation, 218, 300 Inflexibility, 270 Informal assessment, 161–162 Information processing, 159 Information-processing
theories, 210 In-migration, 101 Instructional approaches
adapted, 71–72 community-referenced, 91 computer-assisted, 166–167 direct, 219, 236 evidence-based, 58–74, 284 gifted, creative, and talented,
412–413 intensive, 69 peer-mediated, 55 response to intervention (RtI),
164, 164f Instructional targets in social
skills training, 220f Insulin, 373–374, 375 Insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus (IDDM), 373–374. See also Diabetes
Insulin infusion pump, 375 Intellect, Guilford’s structure of,
399f, 400 Intellectual and developmental
disabilities adult years, 222–223 age of onset, 207–208 assistive technology, 224 categories of supports needed
during adult years, 225f causes of, 214–217 characteristics and prevalence
of, 209–213, 213f characteristics common
to children and youth, 209–213
community support, 221–223 definition of, 205–206 definitions and classifications
of, 206–209 early childhood years/
education, 218, 221 elementary school years/
education, 218–223 identification and assessment
of, 217 interventions and treatments
for, 217–227 introduction to, 205–206 secondary school years/
education, 222 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 297
social (pragmatic) communi- cation disorder, 253
Intellectual disabilities, 4 Intellectual functioning,
206–207 Intelligence. See also Intellec-
tual functioning autism spectrum disorders,
271–272 emotional/behavioral disor-
ders, 183 gifted, creative, and talented,
409–410 hearing loss, 323 as an innate capacity, 406 intellectual and developmen-
tal disabilities, 210 learning disabilities,
158–159, 163 seven intelligences, 403t severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 297 vision loss, 326
Intelligence quotient (IQ), 299, 398, 399
Intensive care specialists, 59 Intensive instruction, 69 Intermittent explosive
disorder, 181 Intermittent support, 209 Internalizing behaviors, 180 Internet, 339 Interpersonal intelligence, 403t Interventions and treatments
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 368–369
asthma, 370–371 attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder, 391–392 cerebral palsy, 357–359 child onset fluency
disorder, 251 cystic fibrosis, 376–377 diabetes, 375–376 emotional/behavioral disor-
ders, 193–201 gifted, creative, and talented,
411–413, 415–424 hearing loss, 334–340 human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), 368–369 intellectual and developmen-
tal disabilities, 217–227 language disorders, 240–241 multidisciplinary collabora-
tion, 193–194 muscular dystrophy,
366–367 seizure disorders (epilepsy),
372–373 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 299–306 sickle-cell disease, 377–379 social (pragmatic) communi-
cation disorder, 254–255 speech sound disorder,
245–247 spina bifida, 361–363 spinal cord injury, 363–365 traumatic brain injury,
380–386 vision loss, 340–347 voice and resonance disor-
ders, 257 In-the-ear aid, 332 Intoxication, 215 Intrapersonal catalysts, 402f Intrapersonal intelligence, 403t IQ (Intelligence quotient), 299,
398, 399
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S U B J E C T I N D E X500
Iris, 318, 319f Itard, Jean-Marc, 16
James, William, 17 Javits Gifted Characteristics
Checklist for Underrepre- sented Populations, 423f
Jobs, Paul and Clara, 408 Jobs, Steve, 408 Jones, James Earl, 7 Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. Founda-
tion, 212 Justice, Department of, 15 Juvenile-onset diabetes,
373–375. See also Diabetes
Kahlo, Frida, 7 Kanner, Leo, 263, 273, 275 Kennedy, John F., 11, 28 Kennedy, Rosemary, 11 Kessler Foundation, 14 Ketogenic diet, 373 KeyMath Diagnostic Arithmetic
Test, 163 Kiddie Cane, 342 Kinesthetic, 160 Kirkendall, Don, 123 Kurzwell, Ray, 345
L&H Kurzweil 1000 and 3000 Reading Systems, 345
L1 (First language), 97, 103, 103f Labels, 4–5, 8–9 Lang, Larry, 408 Language, 42, 233–234, 411 Language acquisition, 114 Language and speech develop-
ment, 233f, 234–236 Language content, 234 Language development level
(LDL), 97 Language development plans
(LDP), 113 Language disability theories,
151 Language disorders
causes and risk factors of, 238
characteristics and prevalence of, 237–238
definitions and classifications of, 237
identification and assessment of, 239
interventions and treatments for, 240–241
Language diversity, 99–100. See also Culturally and linguistically diverse learners (CLDLs)
Language experience approach (LEA), 342, 343f
Language form, 233–234 Language learning vs. lan-
guage deficits, 112 “The Language of Us and
Them” (Mayer), 271f Language problems and trau-
matic brain injury, 380 Language processing, 254 Language skills, 268–269,
342–343 Language use, 234 Laser Cane, 341 LDL (Language development
level), 97 LDP (Language development
plans), 113
LEA (Language experience approach), 342, 343f
LEA (Local education agency), 38–39
Learning and memory, 210 Learning disabilities, 4
academic achievement, 154–158, 163
academic instruction and support, 168–169
adolescent education and transition to adulthood, 168–171
causes of, 160–161 characteristics and prevalence
of, 154–160, 155f, 155t cognition and information
processing, 159 definitions and classifications
of, 149, 150–153 elementary education pro-
grams, 164–168 identification and assessment
of, 161–163 inclusive education, 172–173 intelligence, 158–159 intelligence and adaptive
skills, 163 interventions and treatments
for, 163–173 introduction to, 149–150 learning characteristics,
159–160 mathematics, 158 multidisciplinary collabora-
tion, 171–173 writing and spelling, 157–158 writing sample, 157f
Learning through social media Anat Baniel Method, 127 Autism Internet Modules,
284 Bring Change 2 Mind,
182–183 cerebral palsy, 358 e-Buddies, 210 Edutopia, 106 grade skipping, 417 inclusive education and pa-
rental involvement, 86 individualized education
program meeting, 33 language delays, 241 retard/retarded, ending use
of, 8 role of social media in special
education, 56 SEEL (Systematic Engaging
Early Literacy), 241 sensory disabilities, 339 teen use of social media, 166
Least restrictive environment (LRE), 35–36, 37t, 39, 115–116
Legal blindness, 320 Leno, Jay, 7 Lens, 318, 319f LEP (Limited English profi-
cient), 96 Libraries, 79 Library of Congress, 343 Limited English proficient
(LEP), 96 Limited support, 209 Linguistic diversity, 96–98. See
also Cultural and linguis- tic diversity
Linguistic intelligence, 403t Linguistics of Visual English
sign system, 337
Local education agency (LEA), 38–39
Locke, John, 16 Locomotor patterns, 220, 223 Logical-mathematical intelli-
gence, 403t Long-term memory skills, 272 Loudness of sound, 316, 317 Low birth weight, 215 Low structural language
performance, 252 Low vision, 321 LRE (Least restrictive environ-
ment), 35–36, 37t, 39, 115–116
Macro-Keyboard Challenge, 303 Macular degeneration, 331 Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), 161, 372, 382, 391 Mainstreaming, 27, 49–50 Makey Makey, 303 Malocclusion, 244, 244f Manga, 264t Manic behaviors, 184 Manual approach to teaching
communication, 337–338 Marital distress, 132–133, 187 Marland Report to Congress,
401 Maternal infections, 216 Maternal substance abuse, 215 Mathematics, 72f, 158, 165,
211, 219 Maturational delay, in learning
disabilities, 161 Maturation philosophy, 218 Mayer, Shevin, 271f MD (Muscular dystrophy),
365–367 Measurement bias, 112–113 Media, autism spectrum
disorders in, 264–265, 264–265t
Mediation, 32 Medical classification systems,
208 Medical conditions, and autism
spectrum disorders, 272 Medical descriptors, 208 Medical interventions, for au-
tism spectrum disorder, 286–287
Medically fragile, 356 Medical model, 15 Medical services, 172–173 Meningitis, 329 Mental age, 398, 404 Mental health conditions,
and autism spectrum disorders, 272
Mental retardation, 8, 206 Mentoring, 420 Metacognition, 210 Methylprednisolone, 364 Mexican Americans, 100f Michigan State University, 339 Microphthalmia, 330 Migrancy, 101–102, 105 Mild disabilities, 208 Military personnel and
traumatic brain injury, 379, 383
Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia, 12, 28t
Mini-Keyboard Challenge, 303 Mirror writing, 157 Mitte, R. J., 7 Mixed hearing loss, 317
Mixed receptive and expressive language disorders, 237
Mobile devices, 359. See also Smartphones; Tablets
Mobility, 224, 327 Mobility training, 341–343 Modeling, 238, 251 Modified cultural pluralism, 97 Monoplegia, 357t Mood disorders, 184 Morphology, 233 Moshak, Jenny, 313 Mother-child relationships,
133–134 “Motherese,” 245 Mothers, as caregivers, 131 Motor movement repetition,
269–270 Motor skills, 220, 223, 340 Mountbatten Brailler, 344 Movies, 264t Mowat sensor, 341 MRI (Magnetic resonance im-
aging), 161, 372, 382, 391 MTSS (Multitiered system of
support), 52, 70–71 Multicultural education, 98, 301 Multidimensional theory of
intelligence, 399–400 Multidisciplinary assessment,
29–30, 61 Multidisciplinary collaboration
characteristics of, 51–52 in early childhood and el-
ementary school years, 48–75
early childhood years, 56–65 elementary school years,
65–74 emotional/behavioral disor-
ders, 193–194 inclusive education, 49–50 learning disabilities, 171–173 and nondiscrimination,
111–112 overview of, 52–55 roles within, 54
Multidisciplinary intervention team, 60
Multidisciplinary school-wide assistance teams, 53–54
Multidisciplinary team (MDT), 117
Multifactorial disorders, 215 Multimodal treatments, 392 Multiple-ability approach,
399–400 Multiple disabilities. See Severe
and multiple disabilities Multiple intelligences, 73,
402, 403t Multitiered system of support
(MTSS), 52, 70–71 Muscle disorders (eye), 322 Muscular dystrophy (MD),
365–367 Musical intelligence, 403t Myelomeningocele, 361–362 Myopia, 321, 330 Myopic eyeballs, 322f My Writing Spot, 167
NARC (National Association for Retarded Children), 10
National Association for Retarded Children (NARC), 10
National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren, 301
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S U B J E C T I N D E X 501
National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCRES), 97, 110
National Institute of Child Health and Human Devel- opment (NICHD), 212
National Longitudinal Transi- tion Study-2 (NLTS-2), 80–81
National Mental Health and Special Education Coali- tion, 179
National Organization on Disability (NOD), 14
National Society for Autistic Children, 10
National Technical Institute for the Deaf, 339
A Nation Deceived, 416 Native Hawaiian/Pacific
Islander, 99f, 100f Natural supports, 51, 81, 209 Nature vs. nurture, 16, 217,
406–407 Nazi Germany, 9 NCCRES (National Center for
Culturally Responsive Educational Systems), 97, 110
NCLB (No Child Left Behind Act), 43, 51
Needed support, classification based on, 209
Neural tube defects (NTD). See Spina bifida
Neurological factors, in learn- ing disabilities, 161
Neuromotor problems, 381 Neurotic disorders, 18 New York Times, 346 NICHD (National Institute of
Child Health and Human Development), 212
NIDDM (Noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus), 373. See also Diabetes
NLTS-2 (National Longitudi- nal Transition Study-2), 80–81
Nobody Nowhere (Williams), 270 No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB), 43, 51 NOD (National Organization on
Disability), 14 Nondiscriminatory assessment,
112 Nondiscriminatory collabora-
tion, 111–112 Noninsulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus (NIDDM), 373. See also Diabetes
Nonverbal communication, 252, 268
Nook, 345 Normalcy, 5, 15 Normal eyeballs, 322f Normative sample, 207 Norm-referenced assessment,
162 Norm-referenced standardized
assessment, 217 Note Teller, 345 Nurture vs. nature, 16, 217,
406–407 Nystagmus, 322
Observational learning techniques, 255
Occlusion, 244, 244f
Occupational therapist, 17, 358 Oelwein, Patricia, 305 Office of Special Education and
Rehabilitative Services, 28 Off-level, 410 Olmstead v. L.C. & E.W, 19–20 Olson Circumplex Model,
124–125 Opportunistic infection, 368 Oppositional defiant disorder,
181 Optacon scanner, 345 Optic atrophy, 322, 330 Optic nerve, 318, 319f Oral approach to teaching
communication, 336–337 Oral expression, 342–343 Orientation, and vision loss,
327, 341 Orthopedic impairment, 356 Orthopedic impairments, 31 Other health impaired, 356 Otitis media, 329 Otologist, 331 Otosclerosis, 328 Overprotectiveness, 133–134
Pain syndromes, 364 Paralytic conditions, 357t Paraplegia, 357t PARC (Pennsylvania Associa-
tion for Retarded Citizens), 11–12
PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 12
Parental negativism, 236 Parental reactions, 126–130 Parental safeguards and in-
volvement, 31–32 “Parentese,” 245 Parent organizations, 10–11 Parents
involvement of in culturally and linguistically diverse populations, 110–111
as part of multidisciplinary school-wide assistance teams, 54
severe and multiple disabili- ties, 302
as valued partners, 52–53 Parent-to-parent programs,
142, 143 Parent training, 143, 195, 301 Parkin, Terence, 325 Partial hearing, 317 Partial inclusion, 50 Partially sighted, 321 Partial sight, 321 Partner-notification laws, 368 Partner relationships, 131–133 Pathology, 15 Patient’s disease, 16 PBIS (Positive behavior in-
tervention and support), 280–281
PBS (Positive behavioral supports)
emotional/behavioral disorders, 188, 189, 192, 193, 198
and family support, 141–142 and response to interven-
tion, 70 PCI Education, 56 PDAs (Personal digital assis-
tants), 345, 346 PDD (Pervasive developmental
disorders), 265
PECS (Picture Exchange Com- munication System), 280, 304, 306
Peer-mediated instruction, 55 Peer support, 55 Peer tutoring, 55 Pennsylvania Association for
Retarded Citizens (PARC), 11–12
Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens v. Com- monwealth of Pennsylva- nia, 28t
People First, 12 Perception problems, 159 Perceptual-motor development,
327 Perceptual-motor theories, 151 Perfectionism, 420 Perseveration, 270 Personal digital assistants
(PDAs), 345, 346 Personal exoskeletons,
365 Personal independence, 223,
225, 297 Person-centered transition
planning, 83–86, 85f Person-first language, 8, 30 Pervasive developmental
disorders (PDD), 265 Pervasive support, 209 Phantom pain, 364 Phenylketonuria (PKU), 215, 298 Phonics, 166 Phonology, 233 Photophobia, 330 Physical and healthcare needs,
and severe and multiple disabilities, 298
Physical development, and intellectual and devel- opmental disabilities, 212–213
Physical disabilities acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS), 367–369 adult years, 389 asthma, 369–371 attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder, 389–393 cerebral palsy, 356–359 community support,
387–389 cystic fibrosis, 376–377 definition of, 356 diabetes, 373–376 early childhood years, 387 elementary school years,
387–388 human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), 367–369 introduction to, 355–356 muscular dystrophy, 365–367 secondary and transition
years, 388–389 seizure disorders (epilepsy),
371–373 sickle-cell disease, 377–379 spina bifida, 360–363 spinal cord injury, 363–365 traumatic brain injury,
379–386 Physical therapists, 17, 358, 362 Pica, 181 Picture books, 264t Picture Exchange Communica-
tion System (PECS), 280, 304, 306
Pinel, Phillippe, 16
Pitch, 316, 317 Pitch disorders, 256 PKU (Phenylketonuria),
215, 298 Placement, for special educa-
tion, 39 Place value, 158 Point card, 199f Portable picture schedule, 283f Position-sensitive device (PSD),
342 Positive behavioral supports
(PBS) emotional/behavioral
disorders, 188, 189, 192, 193, 198
and family support, 141–142 and response to interven-
tion, 70 Positive behavior interven-
tion and support (PBIS), 280–281
Positive impacts of children with disabilities on their families, 125–126
Positive replacement behaviors, 195
Postlingual loss, 317 Postnatal disease, and hearing
loss, 329 Postschool outcomes, 80–81 Potter, Lauren, 205 Poverty
cultural and linguistic diver- sity, 100–101, 100f
emotional/behavioral disor- ders, 186, 187
intellectual and developmental disabilities, 216–217
and schools, 104–105 Practical adaptive skills, 207f Practical intelligence, 402 Pragmatics, 234, 254 Prednisone, 366 Predominantly hyperactive-
impulsive type of ADHD, 389
Predominantly inattentive type of ADHD, 389
Pregnancy, problems during, 215–216
Prelingual loss, 317 Prematurity, 215, 322–323 Prenatal care, 334 Prenatal disease, and hearing
loss, 328–329 Preschool-age children. See also
Early childhood years/ education
age-appropriate placement, 61–62
developmentally appropriate practice, 61
early intervention services, 58–59f
evidence-based instructional approaches, 58–65
functional life skills, 62 inclusion, 62–64 individualized, intensive,
and comprehensive services, 60
overview of, 58–59 referral, assessment, and IEP
development, 60–61 service delivery, 59–60 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 301 transition to elementary
school, 64–65
00976_subject ind_rev02.indd 501 19/08/15 11:47 AM
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S U B J E C T I N D E X502
Presidential Medal of Freedom, 212
President’s Committee for People with Intellectual Disabilities, 11, 212
President’s Committee on Mental Retardation, 11
Prevalence acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS), 367–368 asthma, 369–370 attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder, 391 autism spectrum disorders,
272–274 cerebral palsy, 357 child onset fluency disorder,
248–249 cystic fibrosis, 376 definition of, 98 diabetes, 374–375 gifted, creative, and talented,
403–404 hearing loss, 325 human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), 367–368 Prevalence (continued )
intellectual and developmen- tal disabilities, 213
language disorders, 237–238 muscular dystrophy, 366 seizure disorders (epilepsy),
372 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 298 sickle-cell disease, 377 social (pragmatic) communi-
cation disorder, 252–253 speech sound disorder,
242–243 spina bifida, 361 spinal cord injury, 363 traumatic brain injury,
379–380 vision loss, 327–328 voice and resonance disor-
ders, 255–256 Prevention
emotional/behavioral disor- ders, 194–195
of vision loss, 333–334 Primary damage, 379 Principle of introspection, 17 The Principles of Psychology
(James), 17 Problem solving, 195, 219 “Prodigious savants,” 272 Professional and parent ream,
53–55 Professional judgments,
107–108, 113 Professional resource
downloads Figure 2.3 A Sample Individu-
alized Education Program (IEP) for Haillee: An Elementary-Age Student with Disabilities, 40–41f
Figure 4.1 Illustrative Transi- tion Planning Form in the Area of Employment, 84f
Figure 6.3 Mice Get Something Nice When They Follow Di- rections Quickly: Behavioral Incentive Contract, 140f
Figure 8.7 Point Card for IEP Goals, 199f
Professional training, and cul- tural and linguistic diver- sity, 114–115
Profound disabilities, 208 PSD (Position-sensitive device),
342 Psychodynamic theory of autism
spectrum disorder, 275 Psychological interventions for
autism spectrum disorder, 286–287
Psychologists, 17–18 Psychotic disorders, 18 Public accommodations, 11, 15 Public Law 93-112, 29t Public Law 94-142. See Educa-
tion for All Handicapped Children Act
Public Law 99-457, 29–30, 29t Public Law 101-336. See Ameri-
cans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
Public Law 101-476. See Indi- viduals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
Public Law 105-17. See Amend- ments to the Individuals with Disabilities Educa- tion Act
Public Law 108-446. See Indi- viduals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act
Pullout programs, 50, 413 Pupil, 318, 319f
Quadriplegia, 357t Quest Academy, 417
Race/ethnicity, 274. See also Cultural and linguistic diversity
Rain Man (film), 264 Reactive attachment disorder,
182 Reading, 155–157, 165–167,
219, 305 Reading comprehension, 211 Reading machines, 345 Reasonable accommodations,
15, 44 Receptive eye problems, 322–323 Receptive language, 232–233 Receptive language disorder,
237 Receptive language skills,
342–343 Red blood cells, 378f Referral
emotional/behavioral disor- ders, 189–190
preschool services, 60 special education, 36–38, 37t
Reflect on this Americans with Disabilities
Act, one city’s response to, 13
Americans with Disabilities Act, progress since pas- sage of, 14
augmentative and alternative communication, 296
autism spectrum disorders, 273
combat-related traumatic brain injury, 383
communication disorders, 247 co-teaching, 90 Donald T., 273 dyslexia, 156 education for all approach, 81 Eunice Kennedy Shriver, 212
famous people who are differ- ently abled, 7
Friday’s Kids Respite, 132 gifted, creative, and talented,
399, 408 intelligence quotient (IQ), 399 Marilyn von Savant, 399 motor skill development for
young children with vision loss, 340
multidisciplinary collabora- tion, 54
Response to intervention model, 153
severe and multiple disabili- ties, 296
stem cells, 364 Steve Jobs, 408 suicide, 421 traumatic brain injury, 383 wraparound services, 200
Refractive eye problems, 321–322
Refugees, 101 Regular education initiative
(REI), 53 Rehabilitation, and traumatic
brain injury, 384–385 Rehabilitation Act, 268 REI (Regular education
initiative), 53 Related services, 30 Relationship Developmental
Intervention, 281 Relationships. See Family
relationships Repetitive patterns of behavior,
interests, or activities, 267t, 269–271
Residential schools, 334, 346 Resonance disorders. See Voice
and resonance disorders Respiratory ventilation, 298 Respite care, 132, 195, 301 Response to intervention (RtI)
access to general curriculum, 52
in elementary school years, 70–71
emotional/behavioral disor- ders, 189, 193
importance of, 25 and learning disabilities, 153 model for instruction and
service delivery, 164, 164f
Responsibility, sharing, 53 Responsive teaching, 281 Restricted patterns of behavior,
interests, or activities, 267t, 269–271
Retard/retarded, 8, 206 Retina, 318, 319f Retinal detachment, 322 Retinitis pigmentosa, 320,
322, 330 Retinoblastoma, 330 Retinopathy of prematurity
(ROP), 322, 330 Reward system, 25 Rh-factor incompatibility, 329 RhoGAM (Anti-Rh gamma
globulin), 329 Ritalin, 286, 391 Ritualized language, 270 Roberts, Julia, 7 Robots, 359 Rockefeller, Nelson, 171 Role models, 421 Roosevelt, Franklin, 4
ROP (Retinopathy of prematu- rity), 322, 330
Rosa’s Law, 206 RtI. See Response to
intervention Rubella, 328 Rumination disorder, 181
Salamanca Statement, 26 Savant syndrome, 264, 272 Savant Syndrome website, 272 SB (Spina bifida), 127,
360–363, 360f, 362f SB5 (Stanford-Binet Intel-
ligence Scales), 217, 398–399
Scales of Independent Behavior, 217
Schizophrenia, 182 School absences, and technol-
ogy, 359 School administrators, 54 School-based robots, 359 School psychologists, 54 Schools
effects of cultural and linguistic diversity on, 102–105
and migrancy, 105 and poverty, 104–105
School-to-Work Opportunities Act, 82, 83
School-wide support, 52 SCI (Spinal cord injury),
363–365 Sclera, 319f Scratch, 303 Screening, 162–163, 188–189 Secondary damage, 379 Secondary education/years. See
also Transition planning autism spectrum disorders,
288–289 college and career readiness,
instructional focus for, 87–91
communication disorders, 258–259
co-teaching, 89, 90 emotional/behavioral
disorders, 197 family-centered support,
services, and programs, 140–141
gifted, creative, and talented, 415
high school completion and postschool outcomes, 80–81
IDEA transition planning requirements, 82–83
inclusive education in, 86 intellectual and developmen-
tal disabilities, 222 introduction to, 79–80 key elements for, 88f parental involvement, 86 physical disabilities, 388–389 sensory disabilities, 350 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 308 transition planning and
services, 81–86 Section 504/ADA, 12, 44, 44–45t Seeing Essential English sign
system, 337 SEEL (Systematic Engaging
Early Literacy), 240, 241 Seinfeld, Jerry, 264
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Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
S U B J E C T I N D E X 503
Seizure disorders, 371–373, 371f Selective attention, 159 Selective mutism, 182 Self-advocacy groups, 12 Self-control, 198 Self-determination, 87, 302 Self-help skills, 219 Self-labeling, 6, 6f Self-monitoring, 251 Self-regulation, 198, 210–211 Self-stimulation, 269 Semantics, 234 Sensorineural hearing loss, 317 Sensory disabilities
adult years, 350 causes of, 328–331 characteristics and prevalence
of, 323–328 community support, 348–350 definitions and classifications
of, 315–323 early childhood years,
348–349 elementary school years,
349–350 hearing loss, 315–318,
323–325 identification and assessment
of, 331–334 interventions and treatments
for, 334–347 introduction to, 313–315 secondary school years, 350 vision loss, 318–323
Sensory sensitivities, 270–271 Service delivery systems,
59–60, 413, 415–416 Severe and multiple disabilities
adolescent years, 304–305 adult years, 308 causes and risk factors of, 298 characteristics and prevalence
of, 296–298 community support, 296,
307–308 definitions, 294–296 early childhood years,
300–301, 307 elementary school years,
302–304, 307–308 identification and assessment
of, 299 inclusive education, 305–306 interventions for children and
youth, 299–306 introduction to, 293 secondary school years, 308
Severe discrepancy, 152–153 Severe emotional disturbance,
178–179 Severity of condition, 208 Severity of learning disabili-
ties, 152 Shared responsibility, 53 Sheltered workshop, 225–226 Shevin, Mayer, 271 Shin, Don-Wook, 412 Shock, 363 Short attention spans, 159 Shriver, Anthony K., 210 Shriver, Eunice Kennedy, 11,
212, 213 Shunt, 362, 362f Sibling concerns, 136 Sibling relationships, 135–137 Siblings, training for, 144 Sibling support groups, 137 “Sibshops,” 144 Sickle-cell disease, 377–379,
378f
Sight word cards, 305 Signed English sign system,
337 Signing Exact English sign
system, 337 Sign languages, 323–324, 337 Sign systems, 337 Silverman, Linda, 417 Simple Switch Challenge, 303 Single-gene disorders, 215 Skull fractures, 382 Skype, 339 SLI (Speech or Language
Impairment), 237. See also Language disorders
SLP. See Speech-language pathologists
Smartphones, 339, 345, 359 Snellen, Herman, 333 Snellen test, 320, 333 SNR (Special Needs Resources),
33 Social (pragmatic) communica-
tion disorder, 251–255 causes and risk factors of, 253 characteristics and prevalence
of, 252–253 definitions and classifications
of, 252 identification and assessment
of, 253–254 interventions and treatments
for, 254–255 Social-adaptive behavior,
183–186 Social adaptive skills, 207f Social anxiety disorder, 253 Social capital, 97 Social communication, 267t,
268–269 Social communication ap-
proach, 254 Social context, communication
in, 252 Social development, and sen-
sory disabilities, 324–327 Social/ecological model, 125f Social–emotional reciprocity,
268 Social interaction skills,
268–269 Social media. See also Learning
through social media blogging/blogs, 358 culturally responsive teach-
ing, 106 intellectual and developmen-
tal disabilities, 210 sensory disabilities, 339 and special education, 56 teen use of, 166
Social problems, and traumatic brain injury, 380–381
Social scripts, 255 Social self-esteem, 422 Social services professionals,
18–19 Social skills
development of with au- tism spectrum disorder, 281–284
intellectual and developmen- tal disabilities, 219, 220f
severe and multiple disabili- ties, 297
Social Stories, 255 Social understanding, 254 Software for writing, 167 Sonalert buzzer, 347 SonicGuide, 341
Sound frequency, 316 Sound intensity, 316 Sound waves, 316 Spasticity, 298 Spatial intelligence, 403t Special education
cultural and linguistic diver- sity in, 105–115
culturally responsive, 115–118 overview of, 30 partnership with general edu-
cation, 65–68 profile of in U.S., 36f referral, assessment, plan-
ning, and placement pro- cess, 36–42, 37t
severe and multiple disabili- ties, 301
social media in, 56 Special education teachers, 54,
65–67 Special Needs Resources
(SNR), 33 Special Olympics, 205, 212, 213 Special services committee, 36 Specific learning disability,
150, 151f Speech, 233–234, 323–324 Speech and language, 211–212,
380 Speech and language develop-
ment, 233f, 234–236, 297–298, 326
Speech-language pathologists (SLPs)
assessment of social (prag- matic) communication disorder, 253
identification and assessment of child onset fluency dis- order, 249
identification and assessment of language disorders, 239
interventions and treatments for language disorders, 240
interventions and treatments for speech sound disor- ders, 246, 247
resonance disorders, 257 speech and language develop-
ment, 236 treatment of social (prag-
matic) communication disorders, 255
Speech or Language Impair- ment (SLI), 237. See also Language disorders
Speech-reading, 336 Speech recognition software,
359 Speech sound disorder
causes and risk factors of, 243–245
characteristics and prevalence of, 242–243
definitions and classifications of, 242
identification and assessment of, 245
interventions and treatments for, 245–247
Spelling and writing, 157–158 Spheres of influence, 125f Spina bifida (SB), 127,
360–363, 360f, 362f Spinal cord injury (SCI),
363–365 “Splinter skill savants,” 272 Sports and recreation, 224
Spousal relationships, 131–133 SSBD (Systematic screening for
behavior disorders), 189 Standard deviation, 207 Standardized assessments, 299 Standardized tests, 74, 162, 207 Standards-based approach, 43 Stanford-Binet Intelligence
Scales (SB5), 217, 398–399
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test, 74
Stanford Diagnostic Mathemat- ics Test, 163
Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test, 163
Stapedectomy, 331 Star Model, 407, 407f Starter Paragraph Punch,
167, 170 Static dimension of giftedness,
407, 407f Stem cells, 364 Stereotypical language, 270 Stereotypic behavior, 269 Sterilization, 10 Sternberg’s triarchic theory of
human intelligence, 402 Stimulant medications, 286 StoryBuilder, 167 Storytelling rules, 252–253 Strabismus, 322 Strategy Tutor, 74 Strength-based assessment,
191 Stress management, 373 Stuttering. See Child onset flu-
ency disorder Subdural hematoma, 382, 384f Substance abuse during preg-
nancy, 215 Suicide, 421 Summitt, Pat, 313 Supported employment, 226 Support groups, 137, 251 Support network, and learning
disabilities, 171 Supports, formal and natural,
51 Surgery, for voice or resonance
disorders, 257 SymTrend ADL, 201 Syntax, 233 Synthetic intelligence, 402 Systematic Engaging Early
Literacy (SEEL), 240, 241 Systematic screening for
behavior disorders (SSBD), 189
Systems of care, 193f, 194f, 201
Tablets, 339, 345, 359 Talent development, 401 “Talented savants,” 272 Talent Is Overrated (Colvin), 408 TASH, 294–295 TATs (Teacher assistance
teams), 53. See also Mul- tidisciplinary school-wide assistance teams
Tatum, Callie, 320 TDD (Telecommunication
devices), 339–340 Teacher assistance teams
(TATs), 53. See also Mul- tidisciplinary school-wide assistance teams
Teacher nominations, 409 Teachers, 65–68
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Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
S U B J E C T I N D E X504
Teaching, culturally and lin- guistically responsive, 107–110
Teaching Reading to Children with Down Syndrome (Oelwein), 305
Technologically dependent, 356 Telecommunication devices
(TDD), 339–340 Telecommunications, and
ADA, 15 Telecommunications Act, 338 Telescoped schooling, 416 Teletypewriter (TTY) and
printer system, 339–340 Television Decoder Circuitry
Act, 338 Teratogens, 361 Terman, Lewis M., 398 Terminology, 16f Test bias, 112–113 Test of Nonverbal Intelligence
(TONI), 217 Text telephones (TTs), 339 Theory of multiple intelli-
gences, 402 There’s a Boy in Here
(Barron and Barron), 270 Tic disorders, 181 Ticket to Work and Work
Incentives Improvement Act, 82, 83
Tier I, 70 Tier II, 70–71 Tier III, 71 Tinnitus, 328 Token reinforcement systems,
168 TONI (Test of Nonverbal
Intelligence), 217 Tonic/clonic seizures, 371 Total communication, 338 Toxoplasmosis, 328–329 Trachoma, 330 Training
for families, 143 for professionals, 144–145 for siblings, grandparents,
and extended family, 144 “Train the talent,” 272 Transformation, 398 Transition planning
adult services, 85–86 autism spectrum disorders,
277–278 communication disorders,
258–259 emotional/behavioral disor-
ders, 197, 201 facilitating student and
parent involvement, 83–85
gifted, creative, and talented, 419–420
intellectual and develop- mental disabilities, 222, 223–227
learning disabilities, 168–171 overview of, 141 person-centered, 83–86 secondary education, 81–83 severe and multiple disabili-
ties, 308 transition planning form, 84f
Transition planning form, 84f Transition services, 82,
169–170 Transportation, and ADA, 15 Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
characteristics of children with, 381f
classroom strategies for, 386f epidural hematoma, 384f interventions for, 380–386 prevalence and causation,
379–380 subdural hematoma, 384f
Trephining, 18 Triarchic theory of human
intelligence, Sternberg’s, 402
Triplegia, 357t Triplett, Donald Gray, 273 Trisomy 21, 214 TTs (Text telephones), 339 TTY (Teletypewriter) and
printer system, 339–340 Tunnel vision, 320 TV shows, 265t Twiducate, 56 Twins, 161 Twin studies, 406 Twitter, 166, 339 Type 1 diabetes. See Juvenile-
onset diabetes Type 2 diabetes. See Adult-
onset diabetes
UCP (United Cerebral Palsy), 10 UDL (Universal design for
learning), 71–72, 72f UN (United Nations), 26 Unaccompanied minors,
101–102 United Cerebral Palsy (UCP), 10 United Nations (UN), 26 Universal design for learning
(UDL), 71–72, 72f Universal precautions, 369f Usher syndrome, 320
Vaccinations, 275, 328 Values, 6
VBM (Voxel-based morphom- etry), 382
Ventriculoperitoneal shunt, 362, 362f
Verbalisms, 326 VGo, 359 Victor (wild-boy of Aveyron), 16 Video games, 265t Video gaming, 303 Video modeling, 255, 281 Vineland Adaptive Behavior
Scales, 217 Vision, 295, 298 Vision loss
assessment of, 332–334 blindness, 320–321 causes and risk factors of,
330–331 characteristics of, 325–327 classification of, 321–323 field of vision, 321f intervention strategies,
340–347 introduction to, 318–320 low vision, 321 and motor skill development,
340 prevalence of, 327–328 warning signs of, 333t
Visual acuity, 320, 333 Visual capacity, 341 Visual cortex, 318 Visual discrimination, 159 Visual Efficiency Scale,
340–341 Visualization, 398 Visual-processing assessment,
341 Visual structure and support,
281, 282f Vitamin A deficiency, 330 Vocabulary development,
104–105 Vocational Rehabilitation Act,
12, 29t, 44, 82 Voice and resonance disorders
causes and risk factors of, 256–257
characteristics and prevalence of, 255–256
definitions and classifications of, 255
identification and assessment of, 257
interventions and treatments for, 257
Voice problems, 211 Volume (of speech), 256–257 Vos Savant, Marilyn, 399 Voxel-based morphometry
(VBM), 382
Watson, John B., 17, 406 We Are Teachers network, 56 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC-V), 217 Well-being, sense of, 125–126 WICS (wisdom, intelligence,
creativity, synthesized), 402
Williams, Donna, 270 Williams syndrome, 214 Wilson, Woodrow, 171 Wiltshire, Stephen, 272 Wisconsin Medical Society, 272 WISC-V (Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children), 217 Wisdom, intelligence, creativity,
synthesized (WICS), 402 WNBA (Women’s National
Basketball Association), 313
Wohl, David, 421 Women, gifted, creative, and
talented, 421–422 Women’s National Basketball
Association (WNBA), 313 Woodcock Johnson Tests of
Cognitive Abilities, 217 Woodcock Reading Mastery
Tests, 163 Words Plus Inc., 242 Work experience program,
90–91 Work Incentives Improvement
Act, 83 World Summit for Children, 26 Wraparound approach (WRAP),
193, 198–200, 199f, 201 WriteOnline, 167 Writing and spelling,
157–158 Writing sample, and learning
disabilities, 157f Wundt, Wilhelm, 17 Wyatt v. Stickney, 11
Xerophthalmia, 330
Youngberg v. Romeo, 11
Zenger, Darran, 320 Zero-exclusion principle, 30
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Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- Dedication
- Brief Contents
- Contents
- Guide to Selected Text Features
- About the Authors
- Preface
- Part 1: Through the Lifespan